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« April 2009 | Main | June 2009 »

1023 posts from May 2009

May 29, 2009

EXTERNAL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

External Business Environment

 

Scramble for Africa

            The Scramble for Africa was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Imperialism period between the 1880s and the start of World War I (). The Scramble for Africa began in 1881, when France moved into Tunis with Bismarck's encouragement. After centuries of neglect, Europeans began to expand their influence into Africa. Soon, it took on a full-fledged land grab in Africa by European Powers. This came to be called the Scramble for Africa. There are many reasons why this occurred.

            The Scramble for Africa was powered not so much by conditions in Africa, but by the economic, social and political conditions in Europe during the second half of the nineteenth century. In economic terms, it was "not so much as an overproduction of goods in Europe as an undersupply of raw materials".
            The scramble was fierce by July 1884 as France, Britain, Germany and Portugal had all staked claims on African territory within the previous five years.
            From November 15, 1884 to January 20th, 1885, The Berlin Conference, under the chairmanship of , was convened to set up the rules of the Scramble. On February 26, 1885, the decision had been made that first of all, any sovereign power which wanted to claim any territory should inform the other powers in order to make good any claim of their own. Secondly, any such annexation should be validated by effective occupation. Third is that treaties with African rulers were to be considered a valid title to sovereignty. In addition, the powers were free to navigate the Congo and Niger Rivers.

            In the past, according to  (2000), African states were robbed of their natural and human resources by the colonial powers. Belgium's  built his fortune on the wholesale extraction and export of rubber, hardwoods, and metals from the Congo. Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, met a similar fate, as did the oil-rich states of West Africa. However, since the fall of the colonial powers, resource extraction has been largely the province of the post independence leaders in which many of whom followed the lead of their former colonial masters to create vast personal fortunes (, 2000).

            For a fact, Africa is vastly rich in natural resources but the continent has paid a terrible price for this wealth. In the past decade horrendous wars in Angola, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan and Liberia have been fuelled by fighting for control over diamonds, timber, gold, minerals and oil.

            Private interests from warlords to unscrupulous corporations to arms dealers and organized crime have helped to fuel African conflicts over the past decade as they vie for control over valuable resources. According to  (2001), globalization has added a key dimension to contemporary warfare and armed groups from some of the world's most remote places can be directly linked with commerce in the technological heartland of metropolitan society. He added that a complex international network of smugglers, brokers and traders means that everything from diamond rings and garden furniture to the components of mobile phones and Play stations may have originated as the booty of Africa's conflicts.

            , Sierra Leone's UN ambassador, said in July 2000, “We have always maintained that the conflict is not about ideology, tribal or regional difference. The root of the conflict is and remains diamonds, diamonds and diamonds” (, 2000). According to (2002), in a quarter of the roughly 50 wars and armed conflicts active in 2001, resource exploitation has played a key role.  (2000) concluded that a poor country with weak infrastructure, few options for making money and possessing significant lootable resources is four times more likely to experience war than a similar country without them.

 

Mcluhan’s Concept of Global Village

 

            In Mcluhan concept of Global Village, he theorized that because of rapid electronic communication systems, the Earth has become a village in which we have all become neighbors ( 1999).

            The concept of a global village by  (1964) is interconnected by an electronic nervous system, part of our popular culture well before it actually happened.  was the first person to popularize the concept of a global village and to consider its social effects. His insights were revolutionary at the time, and fundamentally changed how everyone has thought about media, technology, and communications ever since. In addition, the underlying concept of McLuhan's view of electronic technology is that it has become an extension of our senses, particularly those of sight and sound. The telephone and the radio become a long distance ear as the television and computer extend the eye by projecting further than our biological range of vision and hearing.

            McLuhan argues that it is the speed of these electronic media that allow us to act and react to global issues at the same speed as normal face to face verbal communication. He concludes we are forced to become aware of responsibility on a global level rather than concerning ourselves solely with our own smaller communities because as he states, “we are electrically contracted; the globe is no more than a village. Electric speed at bringing all social and political functions together in a sudden implosion has heightened human awareness of responsibility to an intense degree” (, 1964).

            In addition, (1967) states that time has ceased, space has vanished and we now living in a global village in a simultaneous happening. McLuhan suggests that through our extended senses we experience events, as far away as the other side of the world, as if we were there in the same physical space. McLuhan assumed that the entire population of the globe is plugged in to communications technology to the same extent.

Anti-globalization Movement

            The anti-globalization movement is an effort to counter perceived negative aspects of the current process of globalization. Although adherents of the movement often work in concert, the movement itself is heterogeneous and includes diverse, sometimes opposing, understandings of this process, alternative visions, strategies and tactics.

            According to  (2001), the current anti-globalization movement has roots in the nonviolent direct action movement, with which it shares a structure based on small autonomous groups, a practice of decision-making by consensus, and a style of protest that revolves around mass civil disobedience. Each of the major organizations of the nonviolent direct action movement began with great promise but soon went into decline, in large part due to the structural and ideological rigidities associated with insistence on consensus decision-making and reluctance to acknowledge the existence of leadership within the movement.

            Epstein argued that anti-globalization movement’s main focus is not on stopping globalization but transforming the terms on which it takes place, and it shades into the domestic anti-corporate movement. She added that the main target of the anti-globalization movement is corporate power, not capitalism, but these perspectives do not necessarily exclude one another. Moreover, the anti-globalization movement provides focus and momentum, and holds out more hope for a revival than any other movement.

 

Laissez-faire Economics

            Laissez-faire Economics is defined as an approach to economics that asserts the importance of the free, competitive market of individual suppliers and individual purchasers to the efficient production, distribution, and allocation of goods and services as well as to the maximization of individual choice, and emphasizes the need to keep state regulation to a minimum ( 1998). In The Wealth of Nations,  (1776) argued that though individuals in the market would pursue their own self-interest, the market's ‘invisible hand’ would lead to the realization of the common good.

            However, this view is criticized because it takes no account of considerations such as environmental degradation except in so far as it might increase costs or social justice. Furthermore, the models of the workings of the free market, on which laissez-faire economics are based, bear very little relation to reality; in the real world, markets are distorted by monopolies, lack of choice through cultural constraints, and imperfect information (, 2004).

             ([1949] 1966) refers laissez-faire as an ideology of the old liberal economists. This ideology, in his view, helped to eliminate the restrictions of medieval times, facilitates the emergence of a private property system and free enterprise. He states that laissez faire philosophy had opened the way for capitalism by utterly destroying the fallacies of restrictionism. Similarly, he added that "the laissez faire ideology and its offshoot, the 'Industrial Revolution,' blasted the ideological and institutional barriers to progress and welfare" ([1949] 1966).  notes that laissez faire is as an ideology and that he speaks of progress.

 

Ways in which the phenomenon of globalization has changed and evolved over the past 120 years

            Globalization is an umbrella term for a complex series of economic, social, technological, cultural and political changes seen as increasing interdependence, integration and interaction between people and companies in disparate locations. The phenomenon has been noted since the 1980s in the context of sociological study on a worldwide scale ()

            Globalization could be defined simply as the decline in costs of doing business internationally. One of its key effects is to enhance the international integration of markets for goods, services, technology, ideas, financial and other capital, and labor. An indicator of its progress is reducing differences in prices for those products and factors across space ( 1995).

            According to  (1999), there have been three technological revolutions in transport and communication costs in modern times. The cost of transporting goods was lowered enormously in the nineteenth century with the advent of the steam engine, which created the railway and steamship. Steel hulls for ships and refrigeration further lowered the real cost of ocean transport late last century, particularly for perishable goods. The telegraph has also helped. Second, the technological revolution also hugely lowered the cost of moving people. The third and current revolution in transport and communications technology, beginning towards the end of the twentieth century, is digital. Aided by the deregulation of telecom markets in many countries, it is lowering enormously long-distance communication costs and especially the cost of rapidly accessing and processing knowledge, information, and ideas from anywhere in the world.

            Market liberalization has also begun with the lowering of import tariffs on trade in manufactures between industrial economies. In the 1980s, trade reform was followed by extensive liberalization of foreign exchange markets and of restrictions on financial capital flows, leading to the development of new varieties of internationally tradable financial security instruments. The 1980s also saw the deregulation of domestic markets in a growing number of countries, which reinforced the effects of deregulating transactions at national borders.

            Economic reforms have included the better assignment of property rights. These reforms benefit most the countries making them, but they also benefit virtually all of their trading partners (, 1992; , 1993). Hence the more countries open up and reform, the greater are the gains to other countries from doing likewise. In particular, they expand the opportunities for developing and transition economies to access goods and services markets, investment funds, and technologies, thereby raising the pay-off to those economies from joining the bandwagon of liberalization. According to  (1991) and  (1999), the reasons for faster growth of more open economies are related to the dynamics of trade liberalization, something which is not just an abstract idea from new trade and growth theory.

 

References

NURSING

 

 

 

 

 

Understanding the Shortage of Nurses in the Light of Economic Concepts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

 

            Nursing appears to be the growing buzzword profession in the early years of the 21st Century.  Individuals from the different parts of the globe are preparing themselves to join the nursing workforce, for different reasons.  However, we have to face the reality that the health care industry is having a shortage.  An understanding of the basic economic concepts helps in understanding the problem of nursing shortage. 

 

Basic economic concepts vis-à-vis nursing and health care

           

            Capitalism is the existing economic structure for the most nations-states across the globe.  The accumulation of wealth is the name of the game, and that is through the accumulation of profit from the capital.  In other words, the more money an individual has the better.  One’s profession is the source of one’s wealth, or economic wealth so to speak.  In today’s era, one of the pools of money comes from the profession of nursing or health care. 

 

            Nurses pledge to serve; but from an economic perspective, they are making use of their labor, which serves as their capital.  At the back of their so-called service is a high economic premium.  In effect, other countries turn to have a high human capital because of the migrant workers that are coming in to them.  This is the reason why nursing institutions are composed of nurses that come from different countries.  The trade-off that these nurses have to take is basically, the distant primary group (families and friends) interactions. 

 

            There has been a high demand for nurses abroad.  In order to meet this demand, private firms that specialize in health care have proliferated.  Schools have opened colleges of nursing. 

 

            For individuals living in Third World countries, they have seen this as the means to get employed.  In one way or another, the rate of inflation is resolved.  The money that comes in the remittances are also contributing to both the micro and macroeconomic performances of these countries. 

 

             (1992) refers to political economy as the ways and means by which the nation-state acts to produce and reproduce itself (p.12).  The concept of the political economy says a lot to nursing and health care.  If we are to look at the history of the practice of nursing, then we will see that nurses or health care specialists are significant in times when nation-states are in war. 

 

            In the United States of America during the aftermath of World War II, Yale University Dean  even contended that the American government should act on providing government support towards the profession of nursing.  This can be done through incorporating nursing education in its educational system.  Another is by providing ample government assistance.  Lastly, she argued that nursing education should be built on the baccalaureate degree (as cited in , 1990, p. 5).  The United States of America has a history of nursing shortage as they waged in wars.  This only goes to show how the nursing profession is tied with the country’s political economy. 

 

            On the other hand, it may also have to do with the demographics, i.e. when the aging population is high and there is no one to take care of them.  Thus, the governments of countries in these statuses make use of laws to legalize the certain concerns that will meet such demands.  For instance, Canada may refine some laws that pertain to immigration to accommodate the demands of the nursing profession, or allocate a higher expenditure for health services. 

 

            These are a few of the basic concepts of economics, which are related and/or applicable to nursing and health care. 

 

The market forces behind the supply and demand of healthcare professionals

 

            When we say demand, we mean the value of a resource, good, or service that an individual or group of individuals are agreeable and have the capacity to buy vis-à-vis the series of prices for a certain phase of time.  The law of demand simply states that the price of a good is indirectly proportional to the quantity demanded of the good (, 2000, p.31).  In other words, consumers need or want products, but they consider the number of products according to their purchasing power.  In accordance with the subject of this paper, nursing institutions in First World countries have a growing demand for nurses.  Likewise, they have the capacity to provide wage premium to their nurses, since the government is providing assistance.  Wage premium therefore is one of the forces that affect the demand of nurses. 

 

            Canada, United Kingdom, and the United States of America are said to be suffering from a shortage of nurses.  They depend on 5 developing countries namely, Australia, India, Philippines, South Africa, and Zimbabwe to fill in the demand (, 2004). 

 

            According to  (1998), an “increased market demand” is the cause of nursing shortage (as cited in  2001, retrieved June 1, 2006, from ).  This further means that quality service is being asked of the nurses.  One does not qualify by simply being a nurse.  One has to be a qualified nurse.  This will be discussed in the succeeding paragraphs. 

 

            When we say supply, we mean the value of a good or service in which individuals or group of individuals agree and have the capacity to sell vis-à-vis a series of prices for a certain phase of time.  The law of supply states that the price and the quantity supplied of a good are directly proportional ( 2000, p. 36-37).  For developing countries, in order to fill in the demand, its private firms “supply” nurses by establishing training grounds for them.       

 

             (2004) have found out that a change in wage premium is related to the supply of migrants.  They noted that these are significantly affected by migration costs, working conditions, and living conditions.  These authors are saying that nurses who are planning to be migrant workers in other countries look at the general working conditions or work environment.  They have the autonomy to go where they want to according to where they are at a greater economic advantage.  In this case, the market forces that affect supply pertain to the migration costs, working conditions and living conditions. 

 

            The factors that are reported to affect the supply of registered nurses deal with the work environment, recruitment, retention, education, compensation, and recruitment of foreign nurses.  The kind of environment present in clinical settings is such that qualified and experienced nurses find difficulty in dealing with inexperienced ones.  Students in countries where there is a nursing shortage are deemed difficult to recruit in the profession.  Some ways have to be undertaken in order to retain older but expert healthcare professionals.  Efforts should be undertaken to prepare students for a clear understanding of the care environment, ethical knowledge and decision-making skills.  It has been reported that there are nurses who are not compensated enough.  The recruitment of foreign nurses is deemed to serve only the hospitals and not the patients themselves and the domestic nurses, in the case of the United States. ( 2001, retrieved June 1, 2006, from ).  These root causes of nursing shortage is true to the case of the United States.  Likewise, these can be considered as the forces that affect the supply and demand of healthcare professionals. 

 

            In Australia, nurses are demanding from the government to increase their wages, since they are suffering from a high workload ( 2001).  Wages or compensation and workload seem to be the most common force that affects the supply and demand of health care professionals.  A high workload with a low wage results for most of them to leave their practice, eventually adding the burden of those who are left in the clinical setting. 

 

The economic impacts of current healthcare financing and service delivery on nursing care

 

            One of the perceived economic impacts of the current healthcare financing and service delivery on nursing care is that it paved the way for nursing institutions to deliver quality service to their patients.  They have the necessary resources to engage in activities, e.g., research, that will contribute to the development of the healthcare industry.  It has raised the nursing profession among the rest. 

 

            Competition is what drives the economic system.  In order to produce the best of nursing care, healthcare professionals ought to be the best.  They have to deliver a competent service to their clients.  This is actually one of the roots of nursing shortage.  Nursing care is no longer a matter of simply nursing and caring for the patient.  It has gone a step further because of the “increased market demand”, from the term of  (1998) as cited in  2001, retrieved June 1, 2006, from ).    

 

The role of nurses in the health-care system of the 21st century

 

            Our world today is indeed a world without boundaries.  A certain territory no longer home to a certain social group.  Birds of various breeds live together in one nest.  One of the questions raised in this circumstance is — what is the assurance that nurses who come from different cultural groups will work harmoniously with each other?  An action may be sacred for one while profane to another.  This now opens nurses and other health care professionals to the challenge of cultural competency.  According to  (1998, p.1-7), it refers to

“developing an awareness of one’s own existence, sensations, thoughts, and environment without letting it have an undue influence on those from other backgrounds; demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the      client’s culture; accepting and respecting cultural differences; adapting care to be congruent with the client’s culture (as cited in , 2004). 

 

One of the roles of nurses in the health care system in this era therefore is to serve as the promulgators of being culturally sensitive.  They help everyone understand that cultural boundaries do and/or still exist.  The challenge for a foreign nurse is to serve her patient according to the cultural box by which her patient belongs.  On the other hand, nurses can prove or are making way for the possibility of a global culture through their profession. 

 

            Another role of nurses in the 21st Century pertains to the utilization of research in the clinical setting.  What caused the proliferation of nurses are said to be the following: the increasing growth of medical and scientific researches, rapid technological progress, and the subsequent growth and development of nursing knowledge and skills ( 1997).  Part of what is being demanded from nurses is being experienced and qualified enough.  Possessing knowledge on the vast nursing research literatures enables them to be categorized as a qualified nurse.  And this is exactly what the health care industry demands from its health care professionals. 

 

           

            One of the ironies that exist is that despite the various medical breakthroughs, the human race is still experiencing sickness.  A significant role of nurses in the healthcare system is that of encouraging everyone to be conscious of their health conditions.  Vices still infect most individuals, which are hazardous to their health.  Nurses can be agents for the preservation of the human race. 

 

Conclusion

 

            This paper has examined the various forces that significantly affect the problem of nursing shortage in the health care industry.  Changes should take place within these areas that impede the development of health care.  The work environment should be strengthened in order to meet the demands of the nursing profession. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

 

E-COMMERCE ON CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN UK

E-COMMERCE ON CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN UK

 

PART I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

         With the inventions of computer, we can say that we have achieved the modern and the advance way of living. Computer is the most reliable and efficient gadget humans have invented. Innovations in computer technology have touched all fields of life. The rapid growth and changes in information technology have influenced the business world. The birth of electronic commerce or e-commerce had brought the great wave of changes in business transactions.  (2006) defines electronic commerce or e-commerce as a process that includes the buying and selling, or the distribution of products or services through electronic systems like the Internet and other computer network. It is an electronic business application aimed in doing commercial transactions. “Electronic commerce is the exchange of information across electronic networks, at any stage in the supply chain, whether within an organization, between businesses, between businesses and consumers, or between the public and private sectors, whether paid or unpaid”

         According to  (1999) this Internet-based technology, allow the online application to integrate several business functions such as accounting, banking, finance, management and administrative control, supply chain management, selling chain management, data collection system, marketing, and also fund transfer. The transactions are made using electronic communications technology such as the database, e-books, e-mail, extranets, Internet, and even with mobile phones. Before electronic commercial transactions is done using Electronic Data Interchange. In this process commercial documents like purchase orders (commercial document that indicates the quantities and prices of the products or services, usually issued by a Buyer to a Seller) or invoices is send electronically. Later on, the “Web commerce” has been developed. In Web commerce, goods and services are purchase over the World Wide Web via https. Costumer can use e-shopping carts and with electronic paying services using credit card payment authorizations. Between 1998 and 2000, large number of businesses in the United States and Western Europe had created their own Web sites.   

         Such technological innovation makes office works and commercial transactions viable in just a single click on your computer. Nowadays companies worldwide are engaged in e-commerce. E-commerce has become the medium for trade of manufacturing and retail industries. (2000) of the Gartner Group estimated that e-commerce revenues in 2000 had generated at least $139 billion dollars and at least $ 2,584 billion in 2004 in business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-consumer (B2C) that is in the United States alone. According to  (2003) of Forrester Research, electronic commerce generated sales worth of $12.2 billion in 2003. E-commerce has become well established in different countries in America, Asia, Europe, and in other industrialized countries around the world.  E-commerce is similar to a real mall because it offers variety of products; from books, ticket reservations, school supplies, clothing, etc.   

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM      

         Most companies in UK have transformed their businesses to enable them for e-commerce. Now e-commerce is becoming the hearth of textile and clothing industries in UK.  (2001) reported that UK clothing manufacturing sector is now experiencing an increasing international competition unlike with the fashion design and branded clothing sector that are performing comparatively strong. In the summary of the report, the clothing industry is facing major problems with the competition from firms in different countries and changing customer needs. For fashion design and branded clothing company’s competition from abroad is less threatening compared to the issue on changing customer needs and difficulty accessing capital. Manufacturers are looking to transfer their production facilities abroad where labor costs are much lower due to the increasing competition from low priced imports. In relation to this, the study then intends to delve with the following questions:

 

1)     What are the potential impacts of e-commerce on the different sector of UK clothing industry?

2)      What are the present problems and challenges facing UK clothing industry with the use of e-commerce?

3)      What are possible solutions to overcome the limitations of e-commerce on clothing industry?

4)       What are the assistances provided by UK government to help resolve the issues on clothing industry?

GOALS

     Several studies in the past had acknowledged that UK had all the advantages that favor the development of e-commerce. This is because it has a liberalized and competitive telecommunications market. However, there have been limited studies which proven the benefits of e-commerce on UK clothing industry. Thus, this study will identify the specific effects of e-commerce on clothing industry. The descriptive research design will be used to attain the ultimate goals of this study. This study also aims to prove the following:

1)     E-commerce has positive and negative effects on UK clothing industry.

2)     UK clothing industry is experiencing problems with the use of e-commerce.

3)     There are solutions to overcome the limitations of e-commerce on clothing industry.

4)     The UK government is providing assistance to help clothing industry to surpass their challenges concerning e-commerce.

 

OBJECTIVES

        

         As the guide for the researcher, the following objectives for this study has been laid down:       

1.      This study will identify the impact of e-commerce on UK clothing industry. This objective will be achieved through a descriptive research design. The results will be derived from the initial and post interviews.

2.      This study will examine the problems and challenges facing UK clothing industry with the use of e-commerce.  This aim will be achieved through the data gathered from the interviews and surveys. In order to guide the researcher with the interview process, a structured interview schedule will be prepared.

3.      This study will determine the possible solutions to overcome the limitations of e-commerce on clothing industry. The data that will help attain this objective will be based on the interview.  

4.      This study will also discuss the assistance of UK government to clothing industry that helps resolve the issues on e-commerce.

 

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

     

         This study was narrowed down to four aspects due to time constraints. First, the impact of e-commerce on UK clothing industry. This study will focus on the three clothing sector namely: fashion design and branded clothing, knitwear and made to order clothing. Second, the problems encountered by UK clothing industry concerning e-commerce. Third, the possible solutions to overcome the limitations of e-commerce on clothing industry. Lastly, the different assistance provided by the UK government to clothing industry that helps resolve the issues on e-commerce. This study will not attempt to compare the status of e-commerce on clothing industry in different countries in the world. 

 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

         The clothing industry in UK is facing a tight competition in the international market. To stay ahead of the competition a better understanding on e-commerce has to be provided. This study will promote a greater awareness and understanding of the impact and potential of e-commerce on clothing industry. Encourage the sector to innovate e-commerce to improve their competitiveness in the market. In addition, this will increase the awareness of the companies to transform the sector for e-commerce. Furthermore, this study will provide them ways to reduce the development and maintenance costs for e-commerce solutions. This study will challenge the government to improve e-commerce awareness by educating and training the companies in the industry. This will also promote the take-up of e-commerce technologies in schools.     

 

PART II

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

         In this study, the researcher will be using descriptive method. Descriptive method seeks to describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and accurately. The impact of e-commerce on UK clothing industry will be taken into account. Desk research will also be used to understand the problems affecting the UK clothing industry and in its different sector. Interviews with trade associations and sector companies will also be conducted for a wider understanding of their use of e-commerce. Finally, a telephone survey to companies, costumers and suppliers engage in clothing industry will be planned to be taken.   

         The evaluation of materials will include the determination of the sources of information. It is convenient to think that information is classified into primary sources or the firsthand and the secondary sources. Primary sources are documents in which the individual describing the event was present when it occurred. Secondary sources are documents in which the individual describing the event but obtained his description from someone else that may or may not have been a direct observer. Analysis of the documents will carry out the external and internal criticism of each document. External criticism is concerned primarily with questions related to whether or not the source is genuine. Internal criticism involves evaluating the probable accuracy of the statements obtained in the document.

 

PART III

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

 

         The data gathered from the research, interviews, and survey will be subjected to analysis. The analysis will be characterized by descriptive and comparative approaches. Qualitative data that will be gathered from the research and interviews will be presented in text formats. The summary of the data from the survey will be converted to percentages and presented in graphs.

 

REFERENCES

LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Leadership can refer both to the process of leading, and to those entities that do the leading. Leadership has been a central, and sometimes controversial, topic in the study of organizations. In spite of claims to the contrary, there is substantial evidence that leadership is positively related to a variety of individual and organizational outcomes. Leaders, by their very roles, are responsible for making decisions that help their organizations adapt and succeed in competitive environments. Leaders do not merely impose goals on followers, but work with others to create a shared sense of purpose and direction. Leaders primarily work through and with other people. They also help to establish the conditions that enable others to be effective. Leadership is a function more than a role. Although leadership is often invested in - or expected of – persons in positions of formal authority, leadership encompasses a set of functions that may be performed by any different persons in different roles throughout a community.

 

Body

Leadership

Leadership can refer both to the process of leading, and to those entities that do the leading. The process of leadership can be actual or potential:

  • Actual - giving guidance or direction

  • Potential - the capacity or ability to lead

 

To keep going despite set backs, is the hallmark of all successful leaders. A good leader must have a positive attitude, should be optimistic, has ideas, always sees a way out and will not give up easily. They take every mistake as a learning experience

A good leader to young children and families should have the following characteristics, traits and skills:

  • Openness - This quality combined with objectivity becomes very powerful. Treat everyone the same; do not have a private agenda. Nothing can destroy morale faster than office politics when people worry about the hidden meaning or intent behind an action or a comment.

  • Humility - Humility is knowing your ability and limitations especially the correct measuring of ones own worth and value. I'm looking at the humility of Christ where it was felt as an unseen power, not leaders who won't go out of their front door to lead.

  • Strength of character (will) - The Moral qualities of a leader, the principles and motives that control the life of a leader to make the right choices. If you teach your home schooled children to make the right choices that will propel them to the fore front of a lot of people who are making the wrong choices.

  • Determination - Determination is growing in our home schooled children the attribute to never give up, never surrender.

  • Ability to give credit to others - Most of Christ's ministry was giving thanks to the Father, or giving all praises to the Father, or hallowing (make or respect as holy) his holy name. Our home schooled children should be taught the ability or recognize the good in each other and be thankful.

  • Willingness to accept blame - This attribute is the 'take up my cross and walk' trait, when you’re wrong admits it and takes it. When you let down your team, raise your hand and accept responsibility so the rest of the members are relieved. Our home schooled children must not be taught to point fingers at anyone but themselves.

  • A person who combines all of the above qualities, with courage, integrity and intuition would certainly qualify as a leader in my estimation. In the past four decades, I have only worked for three or four individuals who possessed all or significant portions of the qualities listed above.

A true leader should demonstrate all of these characteristics. When they do, the resulting performance in their area of responsibility is very simply something to see. They have a team that wants to come to work, one that looks forward to Monday morning rather than dreading it.

  • Consistent - A leader not only has a clear picture of the goals he wishes to achieve; the manner in which he strives for those goals must also be clear to him. This 'clarity' becomes a framework for decision-making. Being consistent and able to say 'no' becomes much easier when the goal and the procedure are crystal-clear. Living, working, and acting consistently create a predictable behavior which gives the co-workers a sense of security.

  • Honest - Leading people and being followed by people has a lot to do with trust. You don't just receive trust from others, you have to earn it. You earn it by being honest; by doing what you say, by being trustworthy.

  • Courage - Many professors talk about entrepreneurs as leaders who take risks. But that's like saying snow is cold—it's accurate but missing something. Another way is to say the same thing is that one must have guts. It requires a great deal of courage to build a company from the ground up. Someone once explained that large organizations function like “womb” protecting employees from a harsh and unforgiving environment. It takes a great deal of courage to leave a corporate or government womb and strike out by oneself into the cold, cruel world of business. When one first starts a business, one is alone and by one’s self.

 

Different types of Leadership styles:

 

                        The Laissez Faire Leadership Style

The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction and face time required. Works well if you have highly trained and highly motivated direct reports. All authority or power is given to the employees and they must determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.

 

This is an effective style to use when:

o       Employees are highly skilled, experienced, and educated.

o       Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their   own.

o       Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used

o       Employees are trustworthy and experienced.

This style should not be used when:

o       It makes employees feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager.

o       The manager cannot provide regular feedback to let employees know how well they are doing.

o       Managers are unable to thank employees for their good work.

o       The manager doesn’t understand his or her responsibilities and is hoping the employees can cover for him or her.

      Autocratic Leadership Style

This is often considered the classical approach. It is one in which the manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager does not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees are expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations. The motivation environment is produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments.

This leadership style has been greatly criticized during the past 30 years. Some studies say that organizations with many autocratic leaders have higher turnover and absenteeism than other organizations. The studies say that autocratic leaders:

o       Rely on threats and punishment to influence employees

o       Do not trust employees

o       Do not allow for employee input

Yet, autocratic leadership is not all bad. Sometimes it is the most effective style to use. These situations can include:

o       New, untrained employees who do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow

o       Effective supervision can be provided only through detailed orders and instructions

o       Employees do not respond to any other leadership style

o       There are high-volume production needs on a daily basis

o       There is limited time in which to make a decision

o       A manager’s power is challenged by an employee

o       The area was poorly managed

o       Work needs to be coordinated with another department or organization

The autocratic leadership style should not be used when:

o       Employees become tense, fearful, or resentful

o       Employees expect to have their opinions heard

o       Employees begin depending on their manager to make all their decisions

o       There is low employee morale, high turnover and absenteeism and work stoppage

       Bureaucratic Leadership Style

Bureaucratic leadership is where the manager manages “by the book¨ everything must be done according to procedure or policy. If it isn’t covered by the book, the manager refers to the next level above him or her. This manager is really more of a police officer than a leader. He or she enforces the rules.

 

This style can be effective when:

o       Employees are performing routine tasks over and over.

o       Employees need to understand certain standards or procedures.

o       Employees are working with dangerous or delicate equipment that requires a definite set of procedures to operate.

o       Safety or security training is being conducted.

o       Employees are performing tasks that require handling cash.

This style is ineffective when:

o       Work habits form that is hard to break, especially if they are no longer useful.

o       Employees lose their interest in their jobs and in their fellow workers.

o       Employees do only what is expected of them and no more.

                      Democratic Leadership Style

The democratic leadership style is also called the participative style as it encourages employees to be a part of the decision making. The democratic manager keeps his or her employees informed about everything that affects their work and shares decision making and problem solving responsibilities. This style requires the leader to be a coach who has the final say, but gathers information from staff members before making a decision.

Democratic leadership can produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with cooperation, team spirit, and high morale. Typically the democratic leader:

o       Develops plans to help employees evaluate their own performance

o       Allows employees to establish goals

o       Encourages employees to grow on the job and be promoted

o       Recognizes and encourages achievement.

Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most successful when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when implementing operational changes or resolving individual or group problems.

Leadership and Management

Leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous. Management functions can potentially provide leadership; leadership activities can contribute to managing.

            Here are the main differences:

  • The manager administers; the leader innovates.

  • The manager maintains; the leader develops.

  • The manager accepts reality; the leader investigates it.

  • The manager focuses on systems and structures; the leader focuses on people.

  • The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.

  • The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective.

  • The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why. The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader has his or her eye on the horizon.

  • The manager imitates; the leader originates.

  • The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it.

  • The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person.

 

 

 

Leadership and management are both important, but they seek to do different things. About 40 years ago  put it this way. Every organization structures itself to accomplish its goals in a way that is in tune with or responsive to its environment. Once the efficiency of the organization is established, people go about simply maintaining the system, assuming that the environment will stay the same. Management is the main focus because it keeps the organization going well with little change. But the thing is: the environment for any organization is always changing. There are always shifts in consumer tastes, social attitudes, society’s culture, technology, historic events, and so on. The world is not static as we assume. Organizations tend not to spot these changes quickly, often because of a "management orientation" which is focused more on "looking in" instead of "looking out". Over time, the organization can become less and less in tune with or responsive to its environment, creating more and more management problems. Times like this require organizations to think more in terms of leadership. Leaders begin to ask questions like, "What is really going on here? How do we become relevant again? How do we fulfil our goals in these new times? What will prompt people to think that what we do is meaningful?" Leaders seek to bring their organization more in line with the realities of their environment, which often necessitates changing the very structures, resources and relationships of their organization which they have worked so long and so hard to manage. And yet, as they do, leaders can bring renewed vitality to their people.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reference:

 

 

 

Trader Project Case Study

Introduction

            It is the objective of the Trader product to develop methods and tools for ensuring reliability of consumer electronic products. This should result in minimizing product failures that are exposed to the user.

A number of technical trends in embedded systems press a need for better development methods resulting in reliable products.  Complexity increase: the extent and complexity of embedded systems and software has been exponentially increasing in recent years and there seems no end in sight for this trend.  Product life cycle decrease: The innovation cycles for these products is decreasing continuously and has in many sectors now come down to a few months.  Open Systems: embedded systems are opened to the outside world as a result of which security, reliability, and availability are emerging problems. They become more open in two ways:

They will not be solely developed by just one manufacturer. Increasingly, the provider of the basic functionality will be host to third parties who will add their own functionality.  They will, during their lifetimes, become involved in networked environments that affect these systems in ways that are not foreseen during their creation.

  

Project Objectives

The project concerns itself with the evaluation of software, its acquisition and subsequent enhancement by the supplier, its installation in user premises and maintenance. The software enabled the finance of international trade to take place more easily and more accurately.

 

The Project Context

            Barwest Bank has been involved in foreign trade and the finance products related to it for many decades.  Before the introduction of TRADER, all operations had been on a manual or semi-automated basis using the SITPRO multi-part set.  NOTE that SITPRO is just a set of documents. 

            Within Barwests, all foreign trade work whether collected by the account holding branch or not was forwarded to the specialist area, known as the Foreign Services Office (FSO) or its 14 local outlets, the Foreign Service Branches (FSBs).  These outlets handle a variety of business, including foreign currency, travellers’ cheques and the provision of Letters of Credit and Collections for its customers. 

            The ‘section work’ to be automated was a) Documentary Letters of Credits and b) Documentary Collections, together with the documentary evidence – normally Bills of Lading; Air Waybills; other forms of Manifest, Insurance and Bills of Exchange.  Each of the above documents forms a ‘complete set of documents’ but there may be several identical copy sets numbered ‘Copy 1 of n’, ‘Copy 2 of n’, etc. 

            Often ‘sets’ follow different physical routes – e.g. the originals travel by sea with the goods whilst another set is sent airmail to the recipient.  This enables the recipient to check that the goods being sent are the right ones, to arrange for finance to be available when the goods arrive; and for the payment to be made releasing the goods to the recipient.  It is important for the Bank to pay only on receipt of the correct set.

 

The pre-project scene (from September of previous year)

             Bernard Bresslaw has been working in FSO for many years, and is Number Two to Mike Oldfield. He had seen an opportunity to automate the work of his area, and thus expand his importance. As a casual activity, he had been superficially investigating off-the-shelf packages to meet his main requirements.

 

Amongst a number of other companies he had visited was ABC, a US-based software house, where he had been entertained quite extensively. Rob Kramerski had also put him in touch with Graham Gooch, a manager with a rival bank, who had experience of implementing the ABC package in Lloylands Bank.

 

Bernard and Graham discussed the ABC package known as Trader and, in passing, Graham mentioned that he was thinking of moving on from Lloylands. Bernard jumped at the opportunity and hired Graham for his expertise.

 

The Project’s commencement

Bernard and Graham decided to proceed with the Trader package and simultaneously commenced negotiations with ABC for the package acquisition. They set up a business team and then prepared a business case.

 

Once all these activities were under way, Bernard decided that he needed some assistance from the central computer department and so contacted the Chief Executive, John Turnbull. A new entrant, John was the first American to be employed by Barwests Bank at such a high level. He was trying to engineer change across the business and strongly supported Bernard's initiative.

 

The IT Team were brought together with Malcolm Shenley as the senior IT representative and Wally Welling acting as his adviser. Dave Duckham was given the task of leading the IT project. Note: Barwests Bank had progressively moved away from Assembler Language and Cobol 1 to become a Cobol 2 shop using IBM 3090 machines.

 

ABC had been contracted to deliver the system and have it operational within five months. Under David Jenkinson, they brought a ready-made team of three people (David himself, Iqbal & Jenny) across from the USA to help with the implementation.

 

APPENDIX 1 - BUSINESS PLAN (extracts)

 

The business goals were to:-

 

  • introduce an automated international trade finance system based on the ABC package, Trader, within 5 months;

·        reduce staffing in the FSO and FSBs by 25% after full implementation;

  • provide a sufficient return on investment that breakeven occurs in year three, with profits in year four onwards.

 

Benefits

 

There were 14 branches and the central office totalling at the time, 400 staff, of whom about a quarter were involved in LC & DC work. The software supplier anticipated a staff saving in the region of 15-25% once Trader was fully operational. The capacity for new business was expected to be enhanced by the new system and forecasts suggested the ability to capture rivals' business to take a 40% market share by year three.

 

Managing Setbacks

            The project schedule passed to the Project Manager was the initial impediment to the flow of the project.  It was when the Project Director had proven the perceived schedule to be unacceptable.  However, the Senior IT manager responded to the matter by enumerating the reasons why it should take seven months instead of five months that the Project Director indicated. 

            First, the Senior IT manager said that (a) the software has yet to be received, (b) the staff are untrained in its use, (c) the business requirements are still being identified, (d) the business case presents an over-optimistic cost position, and (e) the known amendments are quite extensive. 

            The above concerns would be enough to support the seven months plan of project activities.  These statements come from the IT sector itself that knows how the timeframe of the project activities for the smooth assignment.  Notwithstanding these reasons, the Project Director insisted on meeting the target date rather than the planned seven-month period. 

            Apparently, there had been a bit of disagreement as to the matter of project timeframe.  It should have been avoided had the communication between the User Department and IT department been discussing the timeframe before the project commenced. 

 

Problems with the Software Supplier

            The software supplier plays a great role in realizing the project objective of evaluating the software, its acquisition and subsequent enhancement, and its installation in user premises and maintenance.  Prior to the commencement of the project, there seemed to be no further business plan that would anticipate setbacks. 

            The predicament with the supplier came when two additional software staff arrived in addition to the expected one.  It actually created accommodation problems since they will be covered by the company until the last part of the project. 

 

Problems with the Software Application

            The Systems Analyst was the first person to notice the early problem encountered since the software acquisition.  He had spelled out three concerns associating to the acquired software system; (a) the sprocket feed is proving unworkable for the constant changes of stationery which are planned, (b) the company should buy a board to allow the font variations required that would cause additional expenditure to the project, and (c) the printer is subject to breakdowns and evaluation model has required an engineer each day within the week.  In the later month, the problem with the printer got worse as the printer board is no longer manufactured and apparently wouldn’t satisfy the users’ needs.  Moreover, the only choice recommended by the software supplier proved to be in a floating situation as its cost is not known and will possibly cause the budget and the roll-out schedule as well.

            Furthermore, the Business Manager in the user department realized the incompatibility of the kit to the FSBs purpose.  It had also proved that impracticality of sharing a terminal which had been discussed in the project plan.

 

Conclusions and Recommendations

            Obviously, the project went on a somewhat unplanned structure.  The business goals timeframe did not fit to that of the IT Department.  Along with the aim of introducing an international trade finance system, reducing staffing in the FSO and FSB by 25% after full implementation, and providing a sufficient return on investment that breakeven occurs in year three with profits in year four onwards, require a solid preset business plan that would look forward to realizing these goals with the considerations of possible problems that may occur along the project work.  

            The case got its huge fall on the dire communication between the IT department and the supplier that had caused further expenditure.  To mention, the IT department should have cooperated with the software supplier prior to the commencement of the project anticipating the actual needs of the users such as the Correspondence File.  How could it happen had the IT department and the software anticipated the possible outcome.  They should have given allowance or enough space on IBM’s current largest disk drive in order to allow multiple volumes to be recognized and thus, avoiding further cost to the project. 

           

            In his e-mail dated 1 June, the Senior IT Technician was obviously was not pleased of the Project Manager’s statement that the project deadline was met and that the system is live commencing the roll-out with the branches.  It is actually a clear result that the budget for the project would fell short with all the financial problems encountered along the way. 

            Accounting to all setbacks mentioned, it gives the impression that the company took a fatalistic notion of committing to the project.  It looked like the company is too result-oriented fascinated by the software’s ability to enable the finance of international trade to take place more easily and more accurately notwithstanding the problems to be anticipated before committing to the software supplier. 

            Well, of course it will be a company’s advancement but the project should have been smooth-moving if there had been proper planning.  The most obvious missing part in the project was the positive and definite business plan that would have anticipated the setbacks mentioned with corresponding actions should anticipated problems occur along the way. 

            Such business plan would be helpful in determining where the company needs to go, that is, advancement in the finance system.  It would also serve for the purpose of forewarning possible roadblocks as the project goes along.  Consequently, it will formulate responses to contingencies and keeps the business on track in reaching the desired goals. 

            Department goals should also be design in order to connect with specific requirements of both the overall company goals and the goals of other departments in terms of product and timing.  It serves for the purpose of assisting other departments that depend on those specific results and achieving the overall company goals. 

 

The Usefulness and Relevance of the Tinto Model to the Retention in Irish Higher Education”

This essay tackles about the usefulness and relevance of the Tinto Model to the retention issue in Irish Higher Education. On the first part, the Vincent Tinto model was introduced. Its key features, strengths, and its limitations are identified to give the reader enough background as to what the model is all about. On the second part, it addresses the characteristics of the retention in the Irish educational system. The model’s application, usefulness and relevance to the Irish system were presented on the last part for the writer’s final discussion.

The Problem of Student Attrition

Dropout is known to be the greatest problem facing the institutions of higher education. The reason behind this is that attendance in higher education is voluntary. That is why there are a plethora of reasons why people may choose, or be forced, to withdraw. Whereas in primary and secondary education, attendance is compulsory, up to age sixteen.

Generally speaking, enrolment in higher education continues to expand. In the United States of America, enrolment in degree granting institutions increased by about nine percent between the years 1989 and 1999 (Snyder and Hoffman, 2002). As the figure of the enrollment in tertiary education rises, so does the number of students who will be affected by dropout. There is major discrepancy in the estimated figures for dropout from higher education, depending on both the nature of the institution(s) concerned and also with the definition of attrition or dropout used. In general, the rates of students withdrawing from tertiary education voluntarily are around twenty three percent (Rovai, 2002). On the other hand, the usual figure for attrition, as well as academic dismissal, has been fairly consistent to be fifty percent for most of the last century (Leys, 1999) (Tinto, 1983).

In attrition, there is a significant financial cost associated with it. Students who do not complete their studies already have had substantial amounts of money invested in their education, through both resources distributed to them and time spent teaching them. It is practically clear that the universities would prefer to spend this money on students who will guarantee the completion of their degree course.

Non-financial costs are also associated with attrition. The dropout or academic failure of students has a negative effect on the educational achievement and development of other students. This is possible through the damaging of their morale or making them question their own commitment to their course or educational institution (Tinto, 1975).

Normally, it is very rare for the least able students to dropout from their studies, perhaps counter intuitively. Instead, the case turns out to be that the students who are often more academically able are the ones who dropout from higher education, compared to those who stay (Tinto, 1982). That being the case, the result is a graduating class who are less academically able than the one that enrolled in first year. That is all due to the process of attrition.

Given the costs, financial and otherwise, that are connected with attrition, it is evident for most colleges and universities to better understand the forces driving it. If universities and colleges would be more aware of the students’ reasons of their withdrawal from higher education, they would make an effort on the amendments. This would include their selection policies or the way they deal with their students, with a view of reducing their rates of attrition. The most significant model of attrition from higher education was perhaps, the one proposed by Vincent Tinto in 1975.

Student Integration Model (SIM) of Vincent Tinto

Vincent Tinto’s 1975 Student Integration Model (SIM) of attrition was intended to offer a longitudinal model which would explain all of the aspects and processes that influenced an individual’s decision to leave college or university. The model also tells how these processes interact on the production of attrition.

Upon designing the model, Tinto aimed on doing several things. Initially, he intends on making a distinction among the diverse types of leaving behavior. This is important as there are a number of different ways in which a student may choose, or be forced, to leave college. In anticipation of the publishing of Tinto’s paper, these different learning behaviors were often grouped under the rubric of dropout. Among the different types of leaving behavior that Tinto identified are academic failure, voluntary withdrawal, permanent dropout, temporary dropout and transfer.

The basis of Tinto’s model was Durkheim’s theory of suicide. This theory supports the statement that the probability of an individual’s commitment to suicide is predicted by the level of their integration into the society’s foundation. To a large extent, Durkheim argued that if an individual has an ample social support network and sufficient integration on morals, the likelihood of one’s execution of suicide will be lessened. Tinto also asserted that the act of committing suicide was essentially the willful withdrawal of an individual from existence. Therefore, he relates it to the student’s dropout from higher education. In this situation, it is the willful isolation of an individual (student) from one aspect of his society.

In Durkheim’s model of suicide, the individual’s insufficient integration into the society is the drive that pushes him into committing suicide. While for Tinto, he asserts that dropout occurs because the individual is inadequately integrated into the different aspects of college or university life.

He identified the two most important systems at college as academic and social. He also contended that a lack of integration in either or both of these systems could initiate the occurrence of student dropout. But, on the other hand, an extreme integration in either the academic or social systems at college, as indicated by Tinto, would probably be likely to cause problems in the other system. For example, a student who spent the vast majority of his time studying would have little time to spend in his social activity. Similarly, if a student spent his maximum amount of time on his engagement into social activity, his academic performance would probably suffer.

Tinto’s model of attrition was not exclusively based on Durkheim’s model of suicide. He (Tinto) even admitted that this model had one enormous shortcoming. It is the failure of the model to take account of individual psychological characteristics that incline some individuals into suicide. Any model of dropout from higher education that was based solely on Durkheim’s model would be subject to the same kind of limitations. It would fall short of paying enough attention to the individual characteristics of a person that would make him more likely to dropout of higher education than their peers. Tinto understood this and his work included assessing the degree to which individual characteristics affected attrition.

The Student Integration Model (SIM)

Tinto’s Student Integration Model had certain key features. At the heart of the model is the degree to which the individual is integrated into the social and academic aspects of the university. Also of central importance are both the degree to which the student is committed to their goal (i.e. degree attainment) and the extent to which he is committed to the university.

In his model, various types of individual characteristic affected the student’s pre enrolment commitment to both their goal (i.e. degree attainment) and the institution they were going to attend. The characteristics that Tinto highlights as being important in influencing the individual’s goal and institutional commitment are their individual attributes, pre-college experiences and family background.

Individual attributes covers variables such as race, sex and academic ability. Pre-college experiences include social and academic experiences like school grade point average, as well as academic and social attainments. Family background, on the other hand, is comprised of the factors like social status, value climates and expectational climates.

In addition to this, Tinto also asserted that an individual’s educational expectations have effects on their likelihood of attrition. Specifically, this is how long the student intended to attend the educational institution and the importance that the student placed upon the specific institution in which they plan to attend.

There is said to be a significant variance in how committed the individual students are to their specific educational institution. Some students view the college they attend as pivotal to their chances of future employment. Other students may be as happy in another college as they are in the one they attend. Obviously, those students who place a great deal of importance on the college they attend are significantly more likely to persist at the college they are presently in, despite the problems on academic or social issues.

In terms of the effect of socio economic class on institutional commitment, Tinto basically thought that individuals from higher socioeconomic class are more likely to persist at college. According to Tinto, the exact nature of the relationship is more complex than that. He asserts that while academic dismissals tend to be among those of lower social status, lower aptitude and lower levels of intellectual development than those who persist, voluntary withdrawals seem to be of comparable. Or higher social class exhibit higher levels of intellectual development than persisters.

Tinto also stresses that while these individual characteristics, and the individual’s social and academic integration thereafter are the most important determinants in whether or not a student persists in higher education, it is the interaction between the students’ individual commitment to the goal of college completion and their commitment to the specific educational institution, that finally determines whether or not they drop out.

The students’ view of their own higher education experience is obviously all important in their decision to drop out. Tinto thinks that students assess their own higher education experience in terms of a cost benefit analysis. And if they feel they could get greater benefit at equal or less cost out-with the college, it is likely to provoke dropout.

Dropout can also be influenced by aspects of the individual’s personality. Dropouts tend to display certain personality traits. Greater impulsivity, and less emotional commitment to education, are unable to profit as much from past experience, more unstable, more anxious and are overly active and restless.

As previously mentioned, the sex of the student has an influence on college persistence. But its influence is not entirely clear cut. Males are more likely to finish their college course. But of those females who drop out, a higher proportion of them are voluntary withdrawals. Tinto emphasizes that dropout is the result of longitudinal processes of interactions between the individual and the educational institution they attend.

Tinto stresses the importance of the students’ view of their own academic integration and details how he thinks they assess this. According to Tinto, the student views their academic integration as being a combination of two other factors; their grade performance and their intellectual development. Again, according to Tinto, grade performance functions as a kind of extrinsic reward while intellectual development is more of an intrinsic reward.

The sex of the student also influences the importance that they place upon grade performance. Grade performance appears to be particularly important for males. Also, according to, Tinto, intellectual development appears to be more important in determining persistence for females than for males.

Tinto also asserts that for those who persist, they view the education process differently from non-persisters. While non-persisters view education as more of a process of vocational development, persisters (those who persist) see it as more to do with gaining knowledge and appreciating ideas.

Tinto highlighted the importance of determining the different types of social integration and their possible consequences. He stated that social integration in college was “directly related” to persistence and while the lack of social integration would lead to attrition, it would be more likely to cause voluntary withdrawal than it would dismissal.

Tinto also indicates that while as already indicated, very high levels of social integration may lead to deficits in academic performance; it may not lead to attrition. As long as it is provided that the integration has occurred with a support group who has “strong academic orientations”.

Aside from the fact that it is important to the integration of students who are well motivated, with respect to academic work, Tinto also highlights the potential importance of social integration within the faculty itself. It is important as it not only increases the student’s level of social integration. It also increases their level of academic integration.

The student integration model also illustrates Tinto’s affirmation to the fact that academic and social integration, together with goal and institutional commitment, are not separate and distinct. Rather, they have a distinct, influential relationship upon each other. According to Tinto, academic integration directly influences the students’ goal commitment while social integration directly influences his commitment to the specific institution. Also goal and institution commitment may not both be necessary in order for someone to persist. According to Tinto, as long as a student has sufficient goal commitment, he may remain in an institution that they may have little commitment to.

Limitations of Tinto’s Student Integration Model According to its Criticisms

While Tinto’s Student Integration Model of persistence has been the dominant model of student attrition for over twenty-five years, it is far from universal acknowledgement. There have been several criticisms made regarding the said model.

Criticism 1: The Student Integration Model is inadequate in Modeling Student Attrition.

Whilst the vast majority of studies into the Student Integration Model have been generally supportive, it has been contended that the Tinto model is globally flawed and fails to explain the majority of attrition behavior.

For example, Vivenne Brunsden, Mark Davies, Mark Shevlin and Maeve Bracken carried out a statistical analysis on a questionnaire administered to two hundred sixty four first year University students in order to assess the key features of Tinto’s model (Brunsden, Davies, Shevlin and Bracken, 2000).

These first year students had enrolled in one of two different courses at two different universities, one which is BA Computer Studies course at an English University, and another one in BA Psychology course at a Scottish University.

Brunsden et al then noted their participants’ enrolment status a year later, noting voluntary dropouts, involuntary dropouts and persisters. Brunsden assessed each of the participants with their own questionnaire and with proven psychometrically verified valid tests. This includes the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The questionnaire items that Brunsden et al used to construct their own questionnaire have high face validity. Brunsden et al tested a conceptualization of Tinto’s 1975 Model constructed using LISREL8 software in a way that ensured it was statistically testable.

Brunsden et al found that their conceptualism of Tinto’s model did not adequately explain the data they obtained. None of the criteria for fit supported the model and the global assessment of the model proved it to be so inadequate that assessment of the individual components was impossible.

Brunsden et al do however admit that there may have been serious shortcomings in their study that contributed to their results. First, they did not actually assess social or academic integration. What they actually did is to assess only the potential of academic and social integration. As the assessment of potential is open to subjective interpretation, it is possible that the level for potential integration and the level of actual integration for any student didn’t actually line up.

Another conceivable weakness in this study is that it was not exactly Tinto’s actual model that was assessed. In order to carry out an effective statistical test of Tinto’s model they had to create their own testable conceptualization of it. The possibility of the conceptualization being different from the actual model in key ways means that their results are potentially invalid.

Brunsden et al also criticize Tinto’s model for having its origins in Durkheim’s model of suicide. Their argument is effective that even supposing that Durkheim’s original model was an accurate and effective model of suicide, there remains serious doubt over the extent to which the relationship of dropout and suicide can truly be seen as analogous.

They also contend that although Tinto himself was keen to separate the different forms of attrition behavior, that by basing his model upon one of suicide, he is effectively acknowledging that attrition is a negative process. It ignores the possibility of it to be a positive experience for others. For example, on changing courses, having decided that one is now the preferred option compared to another.

Also, while Tinto acknowledged that the important thing is the individual’s own perceptions of the constructs in his model (i.e. their social and academic integration), instead of the degree to which each construct is expressed in an individual, his model entirely fails to take account of this.

Criticism 2: The Student Integration Model is only applicable to “Traditional” Students.

One of the most reliable criticisms made of Tinto’s model is that it is only applicable to a traditional residential type of students. Basically, it has been proposed that the Tinto model is not generalisable beyond students who are resident on, or near, campus and who enter university or college directly after leaving school.

What evidence is there to support this idea? Alfred Rovai published a paper which discussed the extent to which Tinto’s model would generalize to students engaged in distance learning programmes (Rovai, 2002). He comments that previous authors have noted that Tinto’s model is of limited applicability in the study of non traditional students as it is based around the analysis of how traditional undergraduate students fit into to the institution of higher education which they attend.

He points to the work of Bean and Metzner who proposed their own model of student attrition (the student attrition model or S.A.M.). Bean and Metzner’s model also contended that Tinto’s model did not explain attrition in students who were over twenty four, who did not live on campus or were not in full time education. In addition, it also does not fully account for those students who do not particularly wish to become involved in the social aspects of student life and for whom the greatest concern about the university they attend is what it can offer them, academically speaking.

The argument behind this way of thinking is that the classmates, flat mates etc. that non-traditional students have, are a potentially very different form of support network, compared to those fairly common form of support network most students have. For example, mature students are likely to have an extensive, well established network of friends and family in place out with the university. And owing to this, there is less likely the need of intra-university social and academic integration, the kind identified by Tinto.

Similarly, it is unusual for those who are engaged in distance learning for their higher education, to demonstrate similar patterns of attrition, compared to those traditional students. This is due to their differences in levels and types of their social and academic integration.

While these criticisms may be valid up to a point (i.e. the Tinto Student Integration Model may not generalize beyond traditional full time undergraduate students), there is a very simple reason for this. The Tinto model is very ambitious in its scope; one model to explain the full range of student attrition behavior. It was fundamentally designed to describe the factors that cause students to leave higher education and is fairly successful in doing so. But because of the ambitious nature of its design, it was almost inevitable that it would fail to address attrition behavior of some student populations. It was simply because of the nature of the difference of their entire experience of the higher education process to that of the traditional students. It is unlikely that any one model could account for every conceivable reason that every single departing student had for leaving higher education and one that can effectively describe that the attrition behavior of the traditional student type will still have been a remarkable success.

Criticism 3: Academic integration is not an important predictor of student attrition in traditional student populations.

Evidence suggests that academic integration may not be an important predictor of student attrition in the case of non-traditional student groups. At the same time, some researchers also have suggested that it is invalid generally in modeling student attrition.

An example is the office of Institutional Retention at Bowling Green State University. They produced its own analysis of student retention and attrition. Through the administration of its self-constructed questionnaire to the two thousand eight hundred twenty nine students entering first year, they assessed which of these students will return for their second year.

This questionnaire was designed to test a number of variables drawn from the Tinto model. Among them are Academic Integration, Institutional Perception, Social Integration, Goal Commitment, Institutional Commitment, their plans to return and whether or not they did. A path analysis was carried out on the results of the questionnaire.

As a result, they obtained forty one percent of the explanations of the variance in student retention through the said questionnaire. It was said to be based on Tinto’s Student Integration Model. It was also found that Institutional Commitment, Grade point average and Social Integration were amongst the most important variables in the explanation of attrition.

However, they did not find a significant amount of the attrition behavior described by academic integration. Obviously, care must be taken in the interpretation of these results. This was due to the fact that this is a privately carried out study that has not been published and as such has not undergone peer review.

The size of the sample used in this experiment is perhaps its only strength. It represents one hundred percent sample and previous researchers have contended that it is only through the use of a sample this big that Tinto’s model can truly be assessed (Draper, 2002).

The exact nature of some of the questionnaire items are not detailed, nor are they available in appendices of the paper. As such, it is impossible to judge their questionnaire items’ accuracy or validity, in terms of assessing attrition via a SIM-type model. And this is potentially the biggest shortcoming of this study.

All the data that has been obtained in this study is based upon self- report questionnaire. And as such, it is open to subjective interpretation. The lack of effect from the academic integration variable could be a function of the students, who answers the questionnaire with a view to their self image. They don’t perceive the traits that constitute academic integration as socially desirable.

It could also be the case that the exact items that constitute the academic integration in this questionnaire are invalid. Academic integration, as Tinto understood it, could indeed be responsible for a great deal of attrition/retention behavior. But the items on this questionnaire are invalid and do not correctly measure this.

Obviously, if caution is being exercised in the interpretation of the lack of effect seen for academic integration, caution will also be needed in giving too much importance to the significant effect observed for the other SIM based items.

Due to the lack of scientific rigor demonstrated by those who carried out this study, it is possible that the effects observed, due to the other variables, may have been caused by the nature of the questionnaire items or on how they were administered.

There have been several well controlled studies that have investigated the importance of academic integration and whose results have been consistent with its role in the SIM. Of particular note, due to the rigor with which it was constructed, was carried out by Ernest Pascarella and Patrick Terenzini in 1977.

Pascarella and Terenzini tested the effect of the level of student-faculty interaction on student attrition in a traditional student population. Their experiment was designed to determine whether the amount of non-classroom interaction with academic staff that a student had was predictive of their attrition or retention. This non-classroom interaction with members of faculty staff is potentially important as it raises not only the level of that individual’s academic integration but also their social integration.

Pascarella and Terenzini examined a sample of one thousand and eight students from the incoming freshman (first year) class at Syracuse University in New York. These students were sent a detailed questionnaire. Of the one thousand and eight questionnaires they sent out, they obtained usable answers from seven hundred sixty six students, all of whom had also supplied the university with completed Activity Indices AI (10) which is a measure of personality on a twelve dimension scale and all of whom had available scores on the verbal and quantitative scores from the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) which give an indication of academic capability. They then tested their sample again in March the following year.

Their original sample of seven hundred sixty six was sent further test items. As a result, they received usable responses from five hundred thirty six students. Of these responses, one hundred ninety two had to be discounted. It was either they had incomplete AI or SAT scores, or were academic withdrawals, or had left the institution before the end of the first semester.

The final experimental sample was, therefore three hundred forty four students. This sample of students was shown, through analysis via a Chi-squared, to be representative of the student freshman population of Syracuse University. This was in terms of sex and college of enrolment.

The sample was assessed one more time, at the enrolment for the following academic year. At that time, it was determined that fifty five subjects have voluntarily withdrawn. The frequency and nature of non-classroom interaction that each student had with the faculty was assessed through a series of questionnaire items administered to the students in March of their first term. Only contacts that lasted for ten to fifteen minutes or more were counted.

Pascarella and Terenzini analyzed the data obtained from their questionnaires in order to see the effect of faculty contact on attrition behavior, while controlling for possible effects of sex, academic aptitude and personality characteristics. Pascarella and Terenzini found that the amount of informal contact with the faculty was found to discriminate significantly between those students who chose to leave the university and those who chose to persist.

Pascarella and Terenzini's findings indicate that some students who have certain personality traits and needs are more likely to seek non-classroom contact with members of faculty staff. And as a result of this contact, they are likely to attain higher levels of both social and academic integration. In conclusion, they are now more likely to persist at university. However, the results of this experiment indicate that the individual student characteristics do not totally account for the difference in frequency of faculty contact for different students.

The said experiment is potentially important. It provides fairly convincing evidence of the usefulness of some of the most important aspects of Tinto’s Student Integration Model in predicting student attrition in a traditional student body. It is also important as it offers an interactive longitudinal examination of student attrition.

Whereas most studies measure the students’ characteristics once, then assess dropout at a later date, Terenzini and Pascarella assessed the students at three time points which gives a better understanding of the nature of the interaction between different factors of the Student Integration Model.

Retention in the Irish Higher Educational System 

The universities identified retention, completion and student withdrawal as important issues to be addressed. Particularly over the last three years, they have received rising attention within the Irish university sector. A wide range of interventions across the sector has been focusing on the challenge of preventing underperformance among university students. These have been supported by targeted initiatives funding from the Higher Education Authority, increased intra-institutional awareness, and the establishment of the Irish Inter-University Retention Network.

Background of the Irish Retention

Overall figures on student completion of university courses in Ireland indicate that an average of 83.2% of students complete the university courses on which they originally enroll. A recent study on completion, made by the Higher Education Authority, indicates that student completion rates are higher in Ireland compared to other European countries. In spite of this, certain areas of study and student groups depicted higher non-completion rates than what is reflected by the average figure, as the case is elsewhere.

The following have all been found to decrease the likelihood of course completion among university students: under preparedness in Mathematics, lack of adequate interaction with the career guidance services in their secondary school, socio-economic background, motivation to avail of student support, mismatched expectations, and poor adjustment to the challenges of third-level learning environments. 

The Issue on Non-Completion of Higher Education in Ireland

            In 1994, the Higher Education Authority obtained progression data on students who had entered full-time undergraduate courses in the years 1985-1986 in six universities: Dublin City University, St. Patrick’s College Maynooth, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), University College Cork (UCC), University College Dublin, and the University of Limerick. Data were not available from University College Galway. The information obtained are related to (i) the number of male and female students entering each course in that year, (ii) the number of students who proceeded to successive years of each course, and (iii) the number of students graduating or not completing in each course. The data were subsequently analyzed at the Educational Research Center (1997).

            In all institutions, high rates of non-completion were found. With one exception (UCC), each institution registered at least one course with a non-completion rate in excess of one-third of commencing students. The highest non-completion rate for UCC was a quarter. Furthermore, all institutions had courses where twenty percent or more students did not complete.

            At the other end of the spectrum, all institutions had at least one course for which non-completion rate was less than ten percent. Furthermore, there were a number of courses (three in TCD and one in Limerick) in which all students completed their course. But this was the exception rather than the rule. Although courses with high, medium, and low rates of completion were found in all institutions, differences in the patterns of completion rates suggest that institutions vary in their capacity to retain students.

            The data of Higher Education Authority also provided the opportunity of examining whether completion or non-completion was associated with certain courses, irrespective of institution. There were some indications that this was the case. Medicine, Law, and Dentistry had low non-completion rates in all institutions, while rates for Science and Arts tended to be relatively high. However, several subject areas differed in their completion rates, depending on the institution in which they were offered (for example, Engineering and Business Studies).

            The report also identified a number of problems in the data. These, in turn, indicate the need of exercising caution in the interpretation of the findings. For example, institutions defined courses in different ways when providing data, creating comparability problems. In the case of one institution, it was not possible to determine for many courses the extent of repetition, or indeed if there had been any repetition at all.

            In a more recent study, the predictive validity of the relationship between performance in the Leaving Certificate Examination and performance at graduation by 1998 for students who had entered third-level colleges in 1992 was examined (Commission on the Points System, 1998). While the overall figure for graduation in this study was found to be seventy four percent, twenty one percent did not receive any qualification for the course for which they had first enrolled (divided equally among those who passed first year exams and withdrew; failed first year exams and withdrew; and did not sit first year exams). While the remaining five percent were in the system (three percent were still attending and two percent had failed final year exams).

While the results indicate that there was a relationship between performance on the Leaving Certificate Examination and the final year performance, it was far from perfect. The Leaving Certificate Grade Point Average (LCGPA) of students who were awarded a first class honors or distinction was slightly below than of those who were awarded upper second class honors. While it was marginally lower points at entry for those who graduated with third class honors, as compared to those who failed. And perhaps, of greatest interest, is the fact that students who passed first year and then withdrew, had a LCGPA that was much higher than that of students in the third class honors degree. This was comparable to the LCGPA of those who had received a lower second class honors and of those who were still attending.

            These findings suggest that factors other than those assessed in the Leaving Certificate Examination, affect performance in higher education. One of these factors, field of study, was explored in a further study for the Commission on the Points System. In here, all third-level institutions have provided either data of first and final year examination, or a sample of four hundred forty nine students who had commenced college in 1992.

Students with the same Leaving Certificate grades were found to have a higher probability of being awarded a top grade in some disciplines than in others. They also had a higher possibility of not completing in some fields compared to others.

While humanities had a non-completion rate of only six percent, the corresponding figure for science was twenty percent. Another interesting point is the relationships between LCGPA score, grade, and field of study related to the Leaving Certificate scores of students who passed first year and then withdrew. Remarkably, such students in the humanities and science had a substantially better Leaving Certificate scores than for students who graduated. Likewise, the case also applies even for those who obtained first class honors. This pattern was broadly related in other fields of study (business, technologies).

            When non-completion rates were analyzed by field of study, it was found that students who had not completed their courses were more likely to have withdrawn after passing first year examinations (38%) than to be still attending (29%). In addition, twenty six percent are likely to have withdrawn after passing first year, while the remaining seven percent belongs to those who have left before taking their first year examinations.

Passing first year and then withdrawing afterwards was the most common factor associated with non-completion among business and humanities students (44% and 71% respectively). While almost one-third (31%) of science students passed and withdrew, a higher percentage of science students (48%) failed and then withdrew (12% for humanities and 29% for business). The inability to provide more detailed analyses by courses of study limits the usefulness of this study. This was due to the small sample size.  

A non-completion study was also carried out in three Institutes of Technology. The study is of particular interest in obtaining individual student data in its attempt on finding reasons for non-completion. It was reported here that non-completion rate was roughly around thirty seven percent among first year students. Analyses also indicated that a number of factors were associated to non-completion. Among them are low grades in the Leaving Certificate Examination, unclear career aspirations, lack of information, guidance on course and career options, unsuitable course choices, difficulties with some or all of the subjects taken, as well as financial and work-related problems. Institutional factors also played a role, particularly the lack of facilities and support services, along with poor communication between the staff and its students.

Relevance of the Tinto Model to the Irish Higher Educational System

           Tinto’s model did not focus directly on individual characteristics. Instead, he looked at it in the way that they interfaced with the central aspects of his model, which were the academic and social systems of the educational systems of the educational institutions they attended. Rather than focusing on the possible effects of a myriad of individual characteristics, he focused on a few key characteristics. They are the grade point average, family background, sex, etc. He then incorporated these into a model which focused more directly on the impact of the institution itself on the attrition behavior of it students.

           He also acknowledged the adequate notice of his model on the role of student finance in their decision to drop out or persist. Although it was fairly obvious that financial concerns had a great impact on decisions regarding a student’s drop-out, for him, it is only longitudinal and indirect. It is because financial implications may determine which university the individual chooses to attend and this may, in turn, affect the likelihood of dropping out. Once at college or university, Tinto maintains that the role of finance is not a pivotal one for the majority of the students. It will be a key factor affecting the drop out behavior of only the most economically disadvantaged students.

            For Tinto, although there is little chance of reducing attrition rates globally, there is the possibility that these rates may be reduced in certain subgroups of the population. This can be made possible through the increasing of the support or resources given to some students. Another possibility is on the alteration of the selection methods in order to select students that Tinto’s model shows.

           Specifically, it is important for universities and colleges to increase the amount of non-classroom contact between the faculty and the students. Tinto feels that such contact directly affects the likelihood of a person’s persistence in continuing higher education. And as such, such contact should be regular and structured. Tinto also points to one possible indirect way to reduce attrition. That is for universities and colleges to advertise the social and academic aspects of their institutions more realistically. By doing so, he asserts that it would reduce the number of students entering an institution with an unrealistic image of what it will be like. This should in turn minimize attrition, as there would be fewer students dropping out or transferring from institutions that they had found to have less social activity or less academic opportunity than they were led to believe.

 

SOCIOLOGY: THE IMPACT OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN

Effects of Divorce on Children

 

Introduction and Problem

            Whatever the outcome of a family will be, it is the children who either benefit or affected.   (1998) make an astonishing claim that 50 percent of American marriages end in divorce.  This has created an enormous effect on children comprising of more than one million experiencing the divorce of their parents each year.  Moreover,  (1984) assert that parental loss through divorce is a disruption of one of the most significant relationships in a child’s life, and it is believed to have negative effects on relationships formed later in life.  It can be predicted and expected that adult children of divorced parents are themselves more likely to divorce than are those from intact families or those who suffer parental loss through death.  These predictions are actually proven by several studies ( 1972;  1986;  1979;  1977).

            According to a number of researches, hostility within the family has a stronger influence on the child than does family structure.  Furthermore, it has also been found that parental conflict has been found to have a negative impact on children’s and adult’s self-esteem, educational attainment, parent-child relationships, courtship and marriage experiences, and psychological adjustment (cited in  1998).  Collectively, these studies highlight that parental conflict is damaging and disadvantageous to many areas of development for children.  According to (1989), children with parents who constantly fight have been found to be worse off than children from families in which divorce brings an end to the quarrelling. 

 

            If we are to base causes of divorce legally, accepted causes vary from state to state.  The main legal causes resulting into an acceptance of absolute divorce are desertion, cruelty, imprisonment or conviction of crime, intoxication, impotence, nonsupport, and insanity.  All these accepted causes vary within jurisdictions in the United States with adultery as the widely accepted cause of divorce. 

            Out of all stated causes of divorce, this paper identifies three grounds for divorce for the reason that they are the most common reasons for ending up into a divorce.  Since most of divorces are blamed from these three grounds, it would be interesting to study it.  It should also be noted that such causes are mostly an outcome of conflict between husband and wife. 

            The worse that divorce can bring up is its serious effects on children.  This issue has caught up a lot of attention from researchers laying out all the undesirable effects it could bring to children on parental divorce.  Divorce too could have an effect on both the husband and wife but it is fairly apparent that children are greatly affected by it.  This concern is just as important as shaping the future generation in the hands of children. 

            While some of the authors and researchers argue that divorce does not at all implies negative effects on children, it is such an essential and critical concern that should be talked about since most children of divorce illustrate an undesirable outcomes on their life.  Moreover, it is also important to solve this problem once and for all if we are to consider the welfare and happiness of children. 

Descriptive Research

            Divorce can be equated or much more than a bad marriage.  Even though studies on the impact of divorce on children several decades ago showed that some children are resilient and frequently overcome the undesirable effects of divorce, the children of divorce are at serious risk when studies are viewed collectively.  A report of  (2000) asserts that children are more depressed and aggressive toward parents and teachers than are youngsters from intact families.  He added that these children are much more likely to develop mental and emotional disorders later in life.  They start sexual activity at an early stage, have more children out of matrimony, are less likely to marry, and if they do marry, are more likely to divorce ( 2000). 

            Notwithstanding a lot of problems that arise from the moment couples with children decided to have a divorce, the United States still legalized it.  It would be better a divorce if no children are involved but if there are, divorce can be the root of lot of undesirable outcomes to them. 

            Family is said to be the first school of children with parents expected to be with them in building a strong foundation.  Almost everything that makes up the personality of children comes from what has been learned in the family.  This is why  (2000) is so concern about families and children. 

It has been found that the first 2 years following separation, single-parent families are at significant risk for producing antisocial boys ( 1979).  This assertion was supported by the findings of  (1988) that separated mothers reported higher levels of stress than did mothers from intact families.  Furthermore, the model formed during the research stipulated that the impact of maternal stress on child antisocial behavior would be mediated by its effect on parent inept discipline practices. 

Prior Solution

Maintaining Close Relationship

            There isn’t really such a perfect solution but every detrimental things brought about by divorce could be minimize and prevented as well.  A close relationship between husband and wife is a solid bond that keeps away from divorce.   (1995b) states that although single individuals can rear children successfully, a household with two adults offers many advantages as a setting for children’s socialization and development.  Furthermore,  agrees that parents who are happily married exhibit more effective child-rearing skills.  On the other hand, as the mediation model indicates, chronic, unresolved interparental discord places children at risk, for the most part because it disrupts parent-child relationships ( 1994; 1982, 1988; 1990). 

New Research

            New researches have gain attention to courts and the government illustrating the concern for children on divorced parents.  Most of the new researches are based on what has been done several decades past on the impact of divorce on children.  With the majority of those researchers trying to put on a wake up call to the government on the protection of children’s relationship with their parents, courts are beginning to realize that previous researches say it all.  State legislators and policymakers need to consider previous findings on the impact of divorce on children in coming up with important decisions. 

            Pediatricians and their colleagues in the social and behavioral sciences seek better understandings of how to keep children healthy. Some of the most basic and essential understandings of the processes of health and illness have emerged from the study of families.

In her research since 1971,  has the following findings after 25 years:

·         60 percent of the adult children of divorce were married, contrasted with 80 percent of adults whose parents' marriages lasted.

·         38 percent of adult children of divorce have their own children, 17 percent of them out of wedlock. In the comparison group, 61 percent have children, all in the context of marriage.

·         The children of divorce were far more likely to marry before age 25 _ 50 percent compared with 11 percent of the comparison group _ resulting in a much higher divorce rate. Fifty-seven percent of these early marriages failed, compared with 25 percent of early marriages in the comparison group.

·         Only 29 percent of children from divorced families received consistent support for higher education from their fathers, compared with 88 percent of the children from intact families.

·         25 percent of children of divorce used drugs and alcohol before age 14 compared with 9 percent of the comparison group.

"Our findings challenge the myth that divorce is a transient crisis and that as soon as parents re-establish their lives, the children will recover fully,"  said in a statement. "That doesn't happen."

New Solution

Recently, some states require mediation and others say parents must appear in court with co-parenting plans.  Moreover, many courts have eliminated the terms “custodial parent” and “non-custodial parent” altogether as part of mediation. 

 (2004 October 14) develops the following suggestion in minimizing the effects of divorce on children:

·         Good communication between parents is crucial, even if they do not always agree. This helps cut down on children's pitting one parent against the other to get what they want.

·         Make sure children have as much contact as possible with both parents.

·         Parents should not interfere with their children's contacting the ex-spouse or vice versa.

·         Children are better able to love parents and step-parents if they are not pressured to choose one over the other. Making the children choose usually backfires.

·         Parents need to begin thinking, "The marriage is over, but this other person and I must continue to co-parent our children."

            On one side, some researchers in their independent studies would say that divorce does not really bring about negative effects to children at all times.  On the other, some would argue that divorce really does have a great impact on children and are mostly detrimental.  Whether concern people (i.e. authors and researchers) lay out their findings on the impact of divorce on children in two arguing sides, still it can never be denied that divorce brings about undesirable effects to majority of children in a particular extent. 

References

 

 

Literature Review Marketing Higher Education

Literature Review

Educational inequality is the result of interactions between family decisions (demand) and opportunities (supply).  The supply is said to be a factor in which the national government can intervene.  It can be stimulated by passing laws like compulsory-subsidized schooling or emphasizing specialization areas in which its pump-priming strategies will be applied.  With this, educational stratification can be obtained. 

 

However, opportunities of higher education expansion are curtailed by limited resources and illegitimacy of the government.  In the Philippines, although expansion ensued, social origins (say, farmland) and educational transition (say, away from agriculture to industry) remained stagnant (King & Lillard 1987).  Also, China’s educational recovery in the post-Mao era was halted when women started to draw back to rural areas due to inequality (Zhou, Tuma, Moen 1996).  Lastly, South African whites applied racial discrimination to black counterparts to decrease the latter chance to access stratified higher education. Global factors such as Western thoughts and educational modernity adversely influence the stratification processes of developing countries (cited in Buchmann & Hannum 2001).  Modernization theory (Wikipedia 2006) suggests that developing countries require the aid of developed ones for internal growth.  However, when discrimination reigns abound and developed economies wanted more, the opportunity of developing countries to exploit high-paying employment or infuse international knowledge to their own condition is undermined.  In effect, this could be suspected about a procedural strategy from developed countries whereby dependency theory (Wikipedia 2006) is the bottom-line theme wherein they continue to be capitalist and developing economies as natural resources and labor suppliers. 

 

Coleman Report (1976) showed that school factors determine academic achievement than family factors (cited in Buchmann & Hannum 2001).  This is supported by subsequent research conducted by Heyneman & Loxley (1983) that quoted “the poorer the country, the greater the impact of school and teacher quality on achievement.”  In the contrary, there are important aspects of family background to educational outcomes in developing countries.  Family status had found to affect student’s mathematics and language ability.  In supporting study, Filmer & Pritchett (1999) found that the higher the “wealth gap” in a developing country, the difference in student achievement between rich and poor becomes eminent. 

Liberal education is a holistic approach to learning that departs to conventional thinking that a person should learn in narrow perspective (Bloom & Rosovsky 2003).  Its emphasis is on whole development and crucial to higher learning.  Without it, vocational courses would replace bachelor’s degree or other graduate studies since liberal education provides the platform for a person to think critically, appreciate gaining of knowledge and understand cultures/ ethics including their problems.  Developing countries had undermined liberal education due to too much focus on industrialization as evidenced by Soviet Union.  This is aggravated by the fact that most persons in such countries who access liberal education are mostly elites --- a very small fraction of the population.

 

Another hindrance to liberal education is the political ideologies of the holding governments.  As Lao-tzu said, “People are difficult to govern because they have too much knowledge”.  This dictum serves as one of the dictator’s rationale to invest heavily in vocational education.  However, when thinking is limited to only know what to do, what to think and what to learn, people are transformed into robots with value judgments which even engineers would be slipped into since their industrial acts undermines environmental impacts due to too much technicality of their cognition.  To acknowledge this, the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee was formed and aimed to use liberal education to uplift the quality of graduates for the purpose of alleviating poverty in the country.  This will lead for employers to see the graduates more attractive and fit-to-work.

 

In Alaska, youths who are on-the-verge of deciding whether to pursue higher studies or indulge to serious jobs for long-term goals are mostly bound to migrate.  This US-state faced continued slow growth during 1990s and shift from resource extraction to services and retail.  The brain drain that it experiences would not support the transition due to lack of manpower not only in quantity but also quality.  Its long-term development is also beleaguered due to the inability of its universities to lure student to study locally that would lead to permanent employment elsewhere.    

 

SOCIOLOGY: EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN

Effects of Divorce on Children

Introduction

            Whatever the outcome of a family will be, it is the children who either benefit or affected.   (1998) make an astonishing claim that 50 percent of American marriages end in divorce.  This has created an enormous effect on children comprising of more than one million experiencing the divorce of their parents each year.  Moreover, . (1984) assert that parental loss through divorce is a disruption of one of the most significant relationships in a child’s life, and it is believed to have negative effects on relationships formed later in life.  It can be predicted and expected that adult children of divorced parents are themselves more likely to divorce than are those from intact families or those who suffer parental loss through death.  These predictions are actually proven by several studies ( 1972;  , 1986;   1979; , 1977).

            According to a number of researches, hostility within the family has a stronger influence on the child than does family structure.  Furthermore, it has also been found that parental conflict has been found to have a negative impact on children’s and adult’s self-esteem, educational attainment, parent-child relationships, courtship and marriage experiences, and psychological adjustment (cited in . 1998).  Collectively, these studies highlight that parental conflict is damaging and disadvantageous to many areas of development for children.  According to (1989), children with parents who constantly fight have been found to be worse off than children from families in which divorce brings an end to the quarrelling. 

 

Problem Involving Close Relationships

            If we are to base causes of divorce legally, accepted causes vary from state to state.  The main legal causes resulting into an acceptance of absolute divorce are desertion, cruelty, imprisonment or conviction of crime, intoxication, impotence, nonsupport, and insanity.  All these accepted causes vary within jurisdictions in the United States with adultery as the widely accepted cause of divorce. 

            Out of all stated causes of divorce, this paper identifies three grounds for divorce for the reason that they are the most common reasons for ending up into a divorce.  Since most of divorces are blamed from these three grounds, it would be interesting to study it.  It should also be noted that such causes are mostly an outcome of conflict between husband and wife. 

            The worse that divorce can bring up is its serious effects on children.  This issue has caught up a lot of attention from researchers laying out all the undesirable effects it could bring to children on parental divorce.  Divorce too could have an effect on both the husband and wife but it is fairly apparent that children are greatly affected by it.  This concern is just as important as shaping the future generation in the hands of children. 

Descriptive Research

            Divorce can be equated or much more than a bad marriage.  Even though studies on the impact of divorce on children several decades ago showed that some children are resilient and frequently overcome the undesirable effects of divorce, the children of divorce are at serious risk when studies are viewed collectively.  A report of  (2000) asserts that children are more depressed and aggressive toward parents and teachers than are youngsters from intact families.  He added that these children are much more likely to develop mental and emotional disorders later in life.  They start sexual activity at an early stage, have more children out of matrimony, are less likely to marry, and if they do marry, are more likely to divorce ( 2000). 

            Notwithstanding a lot of problems that arise from the moment couples with children decided to have a divorce, the United States still legalized it.  It would be better a divorce if no children are involved but if there are, divorce can be the root of lot of undesirable outcomes to them. 

            Family is said to be the first school of children with parents expected to be with them in building a strong foundation.  Almost everything that makes up the personality of children comes from what has been learned in the family.  This is why  (2000) is so concern about families and children. 

It has been found that the first 2 years following separation, single-parent families are at significant risk for producing antisocial boys ( 1979).  This assertion was supported by the findings of  (1988) that separated mothers reported higher levels of stress than did mothers from intact families.  Furthermore, the model formed during the research stipulated that the impact of maternal stress on child antisocial behavior would be mediated by its effect on parent inept discipline practices. 

Prior Solution

Maintaining Close Relationship

            There isn’t really such a perfect solution but every detrimental things brought about by divorce could be minimize and prevented as well.  A close relationship between husband and wife is a solid bond that keeps away from divorce.   (1995b) states that although single individuals can rear children successfully, a household with two adults offers many advantages as a setting for children’s socialization and development.  Furthermore,  agrees that parents who are happily married exhibit more effective child-rearing skills.  On the other hand, as the mediation model indicates, chronic, unresolved interparental discord places children at risk, for the most part because it disrupts parent-child relationships (1994; 1982, 1988;  1990). 

            In addition to his studies, ’s (1999) study reveals that a consistent predictor of children’s adjustment and academic success was nonresident father’s use of an authoritative parenting style. 

New Research

            New researches have gain attention to courts and the government illustrating the concern for children on divorced parents.  Most of the new researches are based on what has been done several decades past on the impact of divorce on children.  With the majority of those researchers trying to put on a wake up call to the government on the protection of children’s relationship with their parents, courts are beginning to realize that previous researches say it all.  State legislators and policymakers need to consider previous findings on the impact of divorce on children in coming up with important decisions. 

            Pediatricians and their colleagues in the social and behavioral sciences seek better understandings of how to keep children healthy. Some of the most basic and essential understandings of the processes of health and illness have emerged from the study of families.

In her research since 1971,  has the following findings after 25 years:

·         60 percent of the adult children of divorce were married, contrasted with 80 percent of adults whose parents' marriages lasted.

·         38 percent of adult children of divorce have their own children, 17 percent of them out of wedlock. In the comparison group, 61 percent have children, all in the context of marriage.

·         The children of divorce were far more likely to marry before age 25 _ 50 percent compared with 11 percent of the comparison group _ resulting in a much higher divorce rate. Fifty-seven percent of these early marriages failed, compared with 25 percent of early marriages in the comparison group.

·         Only 29 percent of children from divorced families received consistent support for higher education from their fathers, compared with 88 percent of the children from intact families.

·         25 percent of children of divorce used drugs and alcohol before age 14 compared with 9 percent of the comparison group.

"Our findings challenge the myth that divorce is a transient crisis and that as soon as parents re-establish their lives, the children will recover fully,"  said in a statement. "That doesn't happen."

 

New Solution

Recently, some states require mediation and others say parents must appear in court with co-parenting plans.  Moreover, many courts have eliminated the terms “custodial parent” and “non-custodial parent” altogether as part of mediation. 

  (2004 October 14) develops the following suggestion in minimizing the effects of divorce on children:

·         Good communication between parents is crucial, even if they do not always agree. This helps cut down on children's pitting one parent against the other to get what they want.

·         Make sure children have as much contact as possible with both parents.

·         Parents should not interfere with their children's contacting the ex-spouse or vice versa.

·         Children are better able to love parents and step-parents if they are not pressured to choose one over the other. Making the children choose usually backfires.

·         Parents need to begin thinking, "The marriage is over, but this other person and I must continue to co-parent our children."

Conclusion

            If we, people, would just only look at how damaging the impact of divorce on children then we wouldn’t let our personal reasons go over the betterment of the children.  This problem that jeopardizes children’s future wouldn’t take effect if not for the approval of the people.  Correspondingly, if we’ll only consider what we know about the impact of divorce on children, it would give a second thought to couples with divorce-minded.  Then, policymakers would do whatever the people want since this is a democratic country.  Therefore, we will be protecting children as much as we will be shaping up the future generation. 

 

References

MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY

            This paper will discuss the different challenges that are being faced by a corporation today. It will try to identify and critically analyze and evaluate the Management and Leadership Framework and Performance Infrastructure in that organization. This paper will also critically assess the effectiveness and efficacy of these measures. The paper will also highlight the barriers to effective management in the chosen organization. This paper will also try to study the different performance differentiators and how it is used by the given organization in responding to the challenges and other problems. 

            The company that will be the focus of this paper is the company called Microsoft Corporation or simply Microsoft that is based in the United States but has offices and business centers around the globe including an office in the United Kingdom. First of all Microsoft had a strategically sound product design. The products and services that Microsoft offered were not only based on the requirements set by its competitors but also based on the conditions and necessity faced by its consumers. It offered products that can be classified as disruptive as stated by  (2003, p. 51) since goods and products of the company are innovative and do not conform to the normal standards of the industry.  It did not concentrate on a specific field of the market but expanded to other computer related industry to maximize its consumer base and profits ( 1994, p. 111). Microsoft developed, manufactured, licensed and supported a wide range of software products for computing devices ( 1994, p. 112). The most popular of these are the Windows operating system and the Microsoft Office Suit. It has also published Microsoft Encarta, an encyclopedia designed to run on a computer and books such as   ( 1998, p. 32) . Microsoft also issued the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro in an attempt to further expand its profile in the computer hardware market (, 1998, p. 55). Microsoft entered the palm computing market with Windows CE 1.0, a new, built from scratch version of their flagship operating system designed to run on low memory and low performance machines such as handhelds and other palm sized computers (, 1994, p. 67).

Microsoft Windows 98 as well as Internet Explorer 4.0 SPI was released marking the beginning of the takeover of the browser market from its competitor, Netscape. It included features such as FAT32 file system and a support for multiple displays. Windows XP was also issued and it was specifically designed for multimedia capabilities and entry level consumers. Microsoft did not only dominated the software business but it diversified, moving into messaging by introducing MSN Messenger to instant messaging clients to compete with the popular AOL Instant Messaging (, 1992, p. 211). It also acquired the major online service MSN and the cable news station MSNBC. Microsoft has also tapped the global market of home entertainment by introducing WebTV which enabled consumers to access the Internet from their television and the highly regarded Xbox and Microsoft Flight Simulator which dominated the market with their superb graphics and splendid game interface (, 1992, p. 222).

Microsoft was not only concerned with the expansion of its market, it has also an insight on how to develop and design its products based on the specifications and needs of its specific end user. Microsoft introduces Russian MS-DOS 4.01. MS-DOS is the first Microsoft product localized for the Soviet market. The Russian version brings the total number of foreign-language versions to 13, including versions in Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Japanese (Kanji), and Korean (Hangeul) (, 1992, p. 213).  Because of international acceptance, the company simultaneously introduced Windows version 3.1 of Windows in English, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Swedish (, 2004, p. 55). The Chinese State Bureau of Technology Supervision (CSBTS) and the Chinese Ministry of Electronics Industry (MEI) also announce that they have signed an agreement with Microsoft to standardize the Chinese version of Microsoft Windows 95 as the software development standard for The People's Republic of China (PRC) (, 1997, p. 167). The agreement was aimed at speeding the development of Chinese Windows 95 by expanding the scope of cooperation and strengthening the foundation of software development in the PRC ( 1997, p. 166).

With regards to process and manufacturing, Microsoft excelled in this area. Microsoft Corporation develops product with outmost care and consideration for the equipments and features that its product would possess. Inside Microsoft the “eat your own dog food”  expression  is used to describe the policy of using the latest Microsoft products inside the company in an effort to test them in "real-world" situations and to perceive potential errors and mistakes before a software is released in the market (, 2000, p. 55).  Prerelease and beta versions of products are considered dog food. Microsoft also expects its employees to be comfortable with uncertainty. Employees do not know with a degree of certainty when a product will ship, what it will be called, or what features will be included. The company expects responsive employees to rapidly adjust to dramatic changes and advances (, 2000, p. 67).

Microsoft also promotes a general attitude of long-term strategic wariness in its managers, who are expected to be ready for any challenge from the competition or the market (, 2000, p. 67). In this reasoning, being the largest software company in the world does not entail assurance, guarantee and security that the company will remain successful. For instance, future competitors could rise from other industries, or computer hardware companies could try to become less dependent on Microsoft, or consumers could decide not to upgrade their software as often. Microsoft requires its managers to maintain vigilance and sustain a dynamic expansion in new markets. Because of the size and massive time it takes to produce software that will be appreciated by the market, Microsoft has to engineer processes that would rapidly produce the products needed by the market while reducing “bugs” and other irregularities (, 2003, p. 89).

Microsoft, like other companies breaks the development of its software by means of checkpoints called milestones. Each milestone has a definition document that describes which features will and will not be implemented by that milestone and what the acceptable quality level for those features are ( 2004). Product would also pass the alpha and beta stages of development. Alpha developments refer to releasing previews an pre released versions of a developed software so that it can be scrutinized not just by the company’s developers and programmers but also a selected few consumers to  solicit feedbacks and other improvements (, 2003, p. 90). After the product has passed the Alpha test, the product will undergo the Beta stage where it is examined for hidden bugs and defects. Beta stage would also include all features of the software. The last step of a product would be the Release Candidates (RC). As the name implies RC is a software good enough to be shipped out to the market and are tested by tem of developers and a set of costumers for quality assurance and other overlooked bugs (, 2003, p. 100).

Moreover, management of logistics is also stressed inside the company since softwares and products had to be produce rapidly to satisfy consumer demands. Microsoft implemented this concrete and successful supply chain management negotiating with suppliers with regards to developed and fresh concepts that it can market ( 1997) Microsoft also develops a long term partnership with other firms to have a stable supply and source. A stable supply will dramatically increase the capacity of a company since raw materials and information can be passed on one department to another department without any hindrances (, 1997). An example of this would be the partnership between Microsoft and Apple Corporation in an effort to develop a joint computer program with regards to software development and hardware improvement. Microsoft wrote the computer program that enabled Apple Macintosh machines to run. In the browser competition with Netscape, Microsoft gained a lead versus Netscape when it vertically integrated the internet industry by buying the email provider Hotmail and when it sold Windows 98 bundled together with its Internet Explorer.

Furthermore, to improve its softwares, Microsoft implemented quality measures to protect its product. Unlike cars and other products that can be measured, softwares and computer programs have a special system to check for consistency and quality.  During the development of a specific software, the product undergoes alpha and beta testing as mentioned above to check for errors and other hidden bugs in the program. To totally eliminate bugs and glitches, most products are tested by Microsoft’s in house programmers and developers. Imaginary checkpoints are also set to be able to check the progress of a product and to solve problems before projects are completed (Lowe, 1999, p. 100). This strict quality control is due to the fact that substandard products and softwares released in the market would cost the company millions of dollars in lost sales, not to mention the negative publicity and bad image it would shed on Microsoft (, 2003, p. 43).

Aside from the ones mentioned above, Microsoft also made products that patterned and molded to the quality expectations of its costumers. In a survey hired by Microsoft before releasing their popular game console Xbox, it was found out that the gamers wanted a stable and secured gaming platform with superb graphics, higher frames per seconds, compatible softwares and additional features such as network plays (2005, p. 100). Microsoft answered the demands of the gamers and gaming enthusiasts by releasing Xbox which fully complied and satisfied the gaming demand of the public. It was an error free and a bug free platform, it plays games with stunning graphics and its softwares are also exclusively made by Microsoft, thus eliminating the hardware and software conflicts suffered by other gaming platforms like Sony and Nintendo ( 2005, p. 101).

Microsoft also has a fine practice of managing human resources. A great deal of time and money is spent each year on recruiting young university-trained software developers who meet very exacting criteria, and on keeping them in the company (, 2004, p. 111). For example, while many software companies often place an entry-level software developer in a cubicle desk within a large office space filled with other cubicles, Microsoft assigns a private or semiprivate closed office to every developer or pair of developers (, 2004). In addition, key decision-makers at every level are either developers or former developers. In a sense, the software developers at Microsoft are considered the "stars" of the company. For fun, Microsoft hosts the Microsoft Puzzle Hunt, an annual puzzle hunt.  The company also funded a corporate campus for its developers and other students to further advance the knowledge and learning experience of its employees (, 1996, p. 50).

Microsoft also strictly implements scheduling. Scheduling in Microsoft’s definition refers to subcontracting other parts and system of the program to smaller software firms and computer programmers. The Microsoft program MS-DOS was created by of Seattle with its original name, QDOS (, 2001p. 66). Windows which was Microsoft’s main product, was a copy of the program used by Apple Macintosh. Subcontracting does not only lessen the expenses of Microsoft in hiring new programmers and developers, it also picks up outside ideas, insights and innovations that it can use in its products (, 2003, p. 176).

            Microsoft also performs regular maintenance in its products and softwares. It can be seen on the costumer support hotline in the company’s website. In the costumer service hotlines which can be reached by email, Microsoft provides technical support to costumers who have encountered problems with regards to their computer software (, 2003, p. 44). To protect itself and its end consumers it has initiated a program in all its legal softwares to carry a product activation codes as safeguards against computer pirates. Not only does it offers consumer support and technical assistance, Microsoft  and its website also supports forums, blogs, newsgroups, user groups to elicit feedbacks and response (, 1996, p. 76).

Since Microsoft incorporated these improvements and reforms in the organization of the company, it has remained a major leader in the software development industry. This is evident because of several accounts. Data from several websites largely argued that Microsoft is a big leader in the said industry. It has the largest market shares and sales. Microsoft has the largest market capital with an amount of 296.45 billion dollars and it has possesses the biggest quarterly growth of  6% when compared to its closest rival  International Business Machines (IBM) which can only post  a -7.80% (, 2005). Microsoft has also amassed a net income of 12.86 billion dollars, a big sum when compared to the net income of Oracle Corp. and IBM which is 4.96 billion dollars and 18.48 billion dollars respectively (., 2005).

While Microsoft is growing financially today, the company is also faced with numerous problems and challenges nowadays. Alongside this apparent success is a different aspect of the company. Microsoft has been frequently sued by numerous competitors, U.S. Department of Justice and 50 states in the U.S.  with regards to antitrust violations (, 2000, p. 87). The plaintiffs argued that Microsoft abused its monopoly power in selling operating system and web browsers when it bundled its Internet Explorer with the Microsoft Windows operating system (, 2000, p. 93). This move enabled Microsoft to dominate the web browser wars and elbowed its competitors since consumers now have a free version of Internet Explorer. The U.S. Department of Justice also alleged that Internet Explorer will only work with Windows and not with other software made by Microsoft’s competitors ( 2000, p. 95).

Aside from the antitrust suit that Microsoft eventually lost, a formidable challenge faced by the company is the problem of computer and software piracy. Microsoft software and products are being pirated and copied illegally then sold to the consumers at half the price with no revenue going to the firm ( 1999, p. 61). This is appalling since even products and software not yet ready for release to the global market are copied and sold.  Aside from software piracy there are also notions, reports and allegations that Microsoft and its programs are very vulnerable to hackers and computer viruses proliferating in the cyber world (, 1999, p. 53). These viruses cause the computer to act sluggishly losing important data and files. Viruses and other problems inherent in the programs made by Microsoft creates costumer dissatisfaction, negative publicity and loss of sales (, 1999, p. 65).

Another huge challenge against Microsoft today is the shift of the world market to an open source program. Open Source programs like Linux are softwares much like the one’s made by Microsoft but with a fundamental difference. The difference lies in that Linux is a stable program, its source code are open and can be modified, it has the best technical support, it runs on a wide range of hardware and most of all it is free ( 2005, p. 51). Since the main advantage of the Linux is that it is free and can be modified freely, Microsoft and its subsidiary companies and softwares are put in an unpleasant position. The market would now gradually shift to Linux and other open source program gobbling up the huge market share and monopoly enjoyed by the company. Linux and other open source program will also force Microsoft to open up the source codes and basic programming codes of its softwares to the public since the current trend now in software programming is open sourcing ( 2005, p. 53).

A proper operations management could overcome these said challenges and problems. An appropriate operations management could turn the tide for Microsoft. A suitable operations management could also have an immense impact on the over all performance of the firm. Microsoft should adapt stringent maintenance and reliability on its products. It must implement measures that would help curb the effects of computer viruses and the company must employ stiff computer firewalls against hackers and identity thieves. Assuming viruses do get into the system, Microsoft must have an immediate manpower and technical resources to remedy the situation and in addressing the issues, and helping the costumers with regards to their computer problems. This is very vital since the absence of frequent maintenance and a costumer service hotline could adversely affect the company’s reputation, profits and costumers.

With regards to product design, Microsoft must be extra watchful when it is going to release a product. It must consider all legal and political changes occurring in the society to avoid being sued and fined with a heavy sum. This incident is not only counterproductive to the goals of the company but also damaging to a company’s reputation. Microsoft can also win against piracy by making its products pirate proof, making all softwares and products unable to function when they are recopies of the original.

In relation to the challenge posed by Linux and the advent of open source system, Microsoft can use and improve its quality management and maintenance with regards to a proper operations management. First, Microsoft in order to survive, must step up its quality management in relative to its products and softwares. Stepping up the level of quality management is not only improving the excellence and superiority of its products but also listening to the desires and wishes of the costumers since they are ones that must be satisfied by the company. Microsoft must replicate the steps and actions that they took that enabled their Xbox to be a success. It must listen to feedbacks from the publics regarding its products and implementing these feedbacks as a solid answer to the expansion of Linux.

Greater competition and struggle in the software business is also a challenge to the growth of the company. The organization is being threatened by other competitors and other business enterprises that aim to get a big market share that is solely dominated by Microsoft. Aside from competition from other companies, there has also been a trend towards liberalization of the market and the software industry.

Liberalization means the gradual decrease of control on the part of Microsoft with regards to source codes and other computer programs because of the recent anti trust rulings made by the U.S. Supreme court. Source codes and computer programs that is unique and the vital in building computers softwares will be gradually distributed to open source programmers and other independent software companies making these source codes available to the public and breaking Microsoft’s monopoly on software designing. This “liberalization” would in turn strengthen other software companies in challenging Microsoft and providing alternative products to the consumers. This move would also decrease the dependency of the market to the products offered by the company since the consumers will have a clear and distinct choice when  buying.

To combat these negatives external factors, a clear cut policy must be implemented by the company. First, the company must diversify its products. Because of recent government actions and other factors such as new competitors, Microsoft must diversify the products that it offers to the market. Product diversification would mean the modification of products that would have an edge over other competitors in terms of performance, ease of use and compatibility. Diversification would also mean the production of new and unique products that would be bought by the market following the example made by Apple Corporation and their portable music players. Microsoft must also venture producing products and not concentrating all its resources and manpower on a specific area which is software development and design. It must increase its focus on game design, software publishing and home entertainment system to to ease the pressure of competition. Diversification would also mean entering new markets such as China to relieve competition from market rich regions of the world. Microsoft would benefit greatly if it totally enters the Chinese market because of the huge consumer base and the cheap labor cost being offered by China.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

ASSIGNMENT INTRODUCTION……………………………………………..………1

            PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE…………………………………………….……...1

            CONTENTS……………………………………………………………….……....1

THE IMPORTANCE OF CUSTOMER SERVICE…………………………………...1

            EXCELLENT CUSTOMER SERVICE…………………………………………..1

CUSTOMER SERVICE AT MCDONALD’S…………………………………………2

            ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE………………………………………………..2

            MCDONALD’S WELL KNOWN QSCV………………………………………...2

            MCDONALD’S HAMBURGER UNIVERSITY………………………………...2

                        TRAINING, VALUES AND RULES…………………………………………….2

            THREE STRATEGIC PRIORITIES……………………………………………...3

                        VALUE MEAL COMBINATIONS………………………………………………3

                        EXCEPTIONAL CUSTOMER CARE………………………………………….3

                        EFFICIENCY AND QUALITY………………………………………...............3

            THE MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………………4

                        “TIGHT-LOOSE”.,………………………………………………………...........4

                        AD CAMPAIGNS………………………………………………………..............4

                        TYPICAL OPERATIONS……………………………………………….............4

            THE “BUSINESS OBJECTS”……………………………………………………5

                        BO AS ITS MAIN SOURCE OF QUICK INFORMATION……........……...5

                        THE BENEFITS OF BO………………………………………………………....6

            ISSUES ON MCDONALD’S CUSTOMER CARE SERVICE…………………..6

                        THE USE OF COMPANY BLOGS……………………………………………..6

                        MCDONALD’S SOFT DRINK ISSUE…………………………………...........8

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………..8

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………...9

                       

           

CUSTOMER CARE AT McDONALD'S

Customer Care at McDonald’s

 

Introduction

            This paper is about the analysis of customer care service in specific organizations. The writer has chosen McDonald’s as its company. For the first part, a brief overview on customer care is presented to introduce the readers to the main topic. As it approaches the middle part, the actual application of the customer care concepts in McDonald’s is discussed. Topics included are the specific practices and policies of McDonald’s in extending superior product and customer service to its internal and external customers, issues relating to customer service and examples of their treatment regarding the said issues, and others. For the last part, a conclusion/recommendation section is added to formally end up the discussion.

The Importance of Customer Service

            What is the importance of quality customer service in a business’ success? As experts on customer service says, anybody can compete on a product. You can differentiate your price, product, etc. However, you also need to consider differentiating your service. Excellent customer service combined with efficiency is the best tool for any type of business in any type of industry. Nevertheless, fundamental principles in the art of customer service vary for every culture and race. Certain factors like culture, history, religion and others require customization or modification for some principles. That is why they should be considered in identifying what specific practices are acceptable in extending customer service for specific customers in a specific country or race.

Customer Service at McDonald’s

            The success of McDonald’s, since its first opening up to the present, can be attributed to its very strong culture that bonds together its franchisees. Their main driver in everything they accomplished is people, from the brand ambassadors of their customers (employees) up to the customers themselves.

            Organizational culture is a relatively enduring, interdependent symbolic system of values, beliefs, and assumptions evolving from and imperfectly shared through organizational members’ interaction allowing them to ascribe common meanings to the encountered stimuli in the organizational context. These functions are accomplished by mediating the implicit and explicit rules that act as cultural warrants. Simply stated, it is the way things are done around the place. And for McDonald’s, their vision statement is Quality, Service, Convenience, and Value (QSCV). These beliefs are their shared value system, which forms the basis of all its business decisions.

McDonald’s Hamburger University          

            As the restaurant wants to be known for its consistent high quality food and uniform methods of preparation, the Hamburger University is created to train unskilled people to follow the McDonald’s formula. Through this, they can ensure repeated business based on the system’s reputation rather than a single store/operator’s quality. The specific things taught at the said university ranges from the making and serving of a hamburger, quality control, all through its way of dealing with customers and crews.

            They are also taught to possess and practice strong traditional values like loyalty, dedication, and service in maintaining the family-like culture of McDonald’s. This culture is reinforced continually through inspection and administering of contests that determines who among its sets of franchises best reaches McDonald’s standards. They are honored in a ceremony where these franchises and regional associations feel their oneness as a big family.

            The manuals of the McDonald’s employees not only emphasize the organization’s motto and QSCV, it also spells out everything they need to know to perform their tasks efficiently. It includes detailed rules on cleaning, food preparation and employee’s grooming and hygiene. They help ensure efficiency, predictability, and control in the production and customer service.

McDonald’s Three Strategic Priorities

            Three strategic priorities of McDonald’s are integrated in their core values. The first one relates to its emphasis on their profitable value-meal combinations as a way of enhancing their message of McDonald’s value-driven motive in behalf of its customers. Second is to provide exceptional customer care by exceeding their expectations, which includes finding ways to add personal touches that go beyond convenient locations, quick service, clean restaurants, and quality products. Lastly, to remain an efficient producer without sacrificing quality, by searching on different innovations in food processing, construction, and design operations that will increase global profits.

The Management

            The management style of McDonald’s is described as “tight-loose”, meaning it is the corporation that sets the overall quality standards, while the franchisees are given the freedom to make localized decisions. The Filet O’ Fish and the Egg McMuffin, and other new product innovations are examples that originated with the franchisees. Recently, McDonald’s has expanded their efforts in developing new products, in response to nutritional concerns of the customers. However, their concern focuses on maintaining their niche of “serving a small number of products that have mass appeal.”

            In connection to their profitable value-meal combinations, the ad campaign “Great Food at a Great Value” successfully promoted the said product. Along with other ad campaigns, their $1 billion marketing budget has aided McDonald’s in maintaining its level of consumer awareness as the second-best-known global brand. As described by its customers compared to its competitors, they are the easiest and best place that satisfies customers and gives best value. Thus, McDonald’s emphasizes more on customer convenience. It can be manifested in their self-description as a leader in the industry of quick service, rather than in the fast food industry.

            For a typical McDonald’s, there are roughly 2,000 people served per day, 60-70 percent of which comes from take-out orders. To be able to achieve its goal of preparing hot and fresh food, and serving it within two minutes to its customers, McDonald’s rely heavily on the ability of its service crews. To do this, the McDonald’s engineering department has designed a specific layout and equipment for its restaurants. One important component of its operational strategies is the anticipation of customer traffic patterns and food selection based on a detailed history sales and trends analysis. They used the said information in the preparation of various menu items in the right quantities at the right time, in order to have the food ready for the customers’ arrival. Food may be stored in the bin for about ten minutes before disposal.

The “BusinessObjects”

            In retaining its position being the world’s best quick service restaurant, managers need to spend more time with their staff and customers while gathering the needed information. For the McDonald’s in the UK, “BusinessObjects” is their main source of quick information.

            “BusinessObjects” (BO) serves as its integrated query, reporting, and analysis solution. It delivers rapid information via an intranet. They have access on Oracle database that holds information on restaurant’s performance to be able to create suitable reports overnight such as sales, income statement, and business controls to customer contacts and the speed of service of the Drive-Thru. It lets the company track, understand, and manage its business performance well. As the company’s corporate culture is built upon the measurement of product and service quality, BO enables the proactive management of the company, of its restaurants’ performance, improved its effectiveness, as well as the introduction of new measures like the basket analysis, in enhancing promotional activities.

            The said system also allows the identification of possible problems in specific restaurants. Upon knowing the situation, it can be resolved in the soonest time possible. Furthermore, through the faster collection of the information needed by the management, restaurant managers are more concentrated on customer service.

            As a result, significant improvements are accomplished in the customer contacts. Some five hundred stores even achieved a zero complaint for more than two consecutive months. The focus on customer service is enhanced through the information acquired from the three monthly visits of the “Mystery Shopper” in each restaurant. The qualitative information reported via BO ranges from criteria such as the crew’s friendly greeting, wearing of name badge, and the restaurant’s overall cleanliness.

            Due to the increased competition and price sensitivity, proactive management of new promotions is also essential in maximizing the sales of the promoted products. On the other hand, the sales of other products should not suffer the consequences. While at the same time, the ever-growing customer requirements should also be met constantly.

Issues on McDonald’s Customer Care Service

The Use of Company Blogs

            Blog technology is what best describes this type, instead of a public blog. This has been the focus of many leading organizations around the world, including McDonald’s. They have been using the said software in revamping internal communications, reaching out to its suppliers, and remaking of corporate Intranets. What makes them an attractive form of communication is its nature of being an interactive type and cheaper deployment. They are a means of organizing a company’s knowledge.

            The very main reason why blogs supplants the traditional corporate Intranets is its easy set-up and cheaper cost of running. In addition, they are designed to change daily and most important, to receive comments from the public. Meaning, as traditional corporate Intranets are static, blogs are the ones that has the capacity to generate conversations.

            The first corporate blog launched at McDonald’s is the one used by its Chief Operating Officer Michael Roberts. He used it for purposes of spreading information through the global operations of his company and receiving feedback. Nowadays, McDonald’s is distributing to its employees blog access, to be used in reporting daily operations worldwide. The only question now is when they will extend the said blogs to outsiders, such as its customers. For this case, they can use it as a means of marketing their product. People are willing to provide all types of demographic information on blogs, which can be further used in providing more customized services and advertisements to its targeted customers.

            Companies interested in the opening of such blogs to the public face plenty of risks involved. Rivals of the company can use it in spreading malicious rumors that can damage the image of the company. On the contrary, if criticisms appear on the said blogs, companies can learn quickly and respond from this. For giants such as McDonald’s, a lot of considerations are needed, as the use of the said blogs is a big gamble that needs strategic move on the company’s part.

McDonald’s Soft Drink Issue

            A lot of studies and researches are done to figure out the specific reason why people order smaller drink sizes in the drive-thru compared to inside. Whether it is the cup-holder size, the tendency of getting hot before you finish it, or the possibility of not finishing the drink before reaching destination, all these obvious reasons are results of a failed study. Even simple reasons such as worries on spilling and peeing are not enough in proving the real reason behind the issue. Only more complex researches such as commercial ethnography can give justifiable answers to such issues, and all we can do is wait for that time to come.

Conclusion

            Customer service is important in the success of any business. It is as important as the company’s product. In building strong customer relationships, factors such as trust, knowledge, efficiency, and friendliness are important considerations. People like to do business with people they trust. Trust is built through personal experiences as well as other people’s recommendations. That is why it is important to treat your customers well. They are the bloodline of your company. Trust is the number one way to build and retain your customer base. Second, people prefer doing business with people who know what they are talking about, making them reliable at the same time. And for the third and last factor, people want doing business where their precious time is not wasted, and with people who are friendly and approachable, making them sensible to deal with.

References

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                   

CORPORATE STRATEGY

Summary of Findings

            Tomkins has changed its shareholder value creation strategy from financial to business focus.  It also diverted its concentration from short-term value creation to sustainable one.  This resulted to increase in dividend pay-outs in 2004 and 2005 despite acquisition regimes.  This means that Tomkins is capable to integrate its resources and its subsidiaries efficiently.  As a result, shareholders are granted with short-run benefits through dividend pay-outs and unrealized capital gains as Tomkins shares accelerate its market attractiveness.  However, despite this, it is recommended that the firm continuously evaluate its subsidiaries particularly in the areas of their debt.  Also, it must try to place investments (in portfolio form) on unrelated businesses to minimize industry risk coupled with investments in R&D to prevent risk of overly focus in acquisitions.         

 

Creating Shareholder Value of Tomkins from 2001 to 2005

            In the year in the initial years of this half decade operations, Tomkins had focused increasing the unrealized capital gains of its shareholders through buyback programs.  Especially in the years 2001 and 2002, this strategy was set to calm down shareholders amidst its disposal of some of its relatively unrelated subsidiaries like gardening products to concentrate in its core businesses and minimize its debts.  In effect, earnings per share increased that made its shares attractive for investors.  The buyback program suggested that the firm is confident in the future cash generating capability of a lean but mean business. 

 

            In 2002, a new CEO was promulgated.  This happening onwards started the abrupt acquisition strategies of Tomkins that was intended to purchase highly related companies to obtain synergy and strengthen available technology.  Year after year, earnings per share and share price increased beyond the level of disposal periods in 2001 and 2002.  Dividends that had remained flat at 12 pence from 2001-2003 had dramatically increased for the next two years.  This indicated that the less speculating shareholders were paid off in favor of long-term gains with the company. 

 

            Within this half decade, sales and profits remained constant.  This is rather atypical for a firm that had lost some of its good performing subsidiaries during the initial years of disposal.  However, as Tomkins ignored short-term attractiveness of a diversified and unrelated portfolio in favor of its core businesses, it exemplified an ongoing concern for shareholders to support its acquisitions.  It became long-term strategist wherein geographic expansion had not shaken its concentrated portfolio rather enforced its competencies by obtaining related businesses with technologies it can integrate to its existing businesses. 

 

            Shareholder returns at Tomkins surpassed the FTSE Engineering and Machinery sector by a huge margin.  It could be suspected that the success of the firm to protect the trust of its shareholder was derived early in its disposing tactics.  It had not only slashed the risks of its portfolio by doing this due to horizontal integration and economies of scale but also provide the cognition that it is focusing on long-term gains.  As a result, its return had also increased making its share more attractive year-after-year. 

 

            At the onset of 2003, the corporate scandal at Enron changed how Tomikins reported its annual performance.  Share price was not presented at single price rather a range of pricing for the past four quarters.  This can be translated as to discourage false financial promises for prospected investors.  However, even this lost opportunity for abrupt marketing of its share did not shaken the performance of the firm.  It even served as motivation to undermine financial for business strategies.  This situated Tomkins to create shareholder value within the veil of long-term relationship but with continuous (even increasing) dividend pay-outs. 

 

Other Extraneous Report Analysis

             It had acquired related businesses Selkirk, NGR and L.E. Technologies as well as sold its subsidiary that produces helmet (Gutter).  This strategy of Tomkins proved that it acquires for faster transfer of technology and to support its manufacturing/ supply chain.  Also, it is selling subsidiaries that are not within its core businesses like industrial, automotive and building materials.  It aimed for highly horizontally integrated business which makes investors minimized the risk of costly integration as Tomkins and the acquired firm resources are highly similar.  This cost savings will be allocated for geographical expansion instead.

 

            As the CEO admitted, the firm is volatile in industrial developments like oil prices hikes and increase in metal prices.  As the business of the firm becomes concentrated in highly related businesses, the volatility increases as it cannot offset such input hikes in other unrelated businesses, say, in food products where the adverse effects of industry and general environment forces are low.  Although shareholders are confronted with greater returns and sustainable growth, it is offset by higher risk of the firm’s volatility.

 

             

Recommendations

            The firm must continue its business strategy focus.  This will provide investors the long-term relationship with the firm.  However, at times when strategies do not arrive at intended value creating results to shareholders, the 2001-2002 disposing regimes and buyback programs can serve as contingency actions.  In effect, balancing business and financial strategies attributable to shareholders should be maintained.  The need for this intensifies as Tomkins prefer a concentrated portfolio which means that it becomes volatile in every industrial bottleneck. 

 

            In the last few years of the half decade it deepened its acquisition with highly related businesses.  However, acquisition threats are just around the corner.  The risk of acquisition ended with integration difficulties and large debt must be taken in consideration.  As a result, diligent evaluation in the pre-acquisition stage becomes crucial.  At present, shareholders may exercise confidence in this expensive strategy, but if the firm fails to equate this sacrifice into profits at due time, it could threat the equity financing. 

 

            To minimize industry risk (like oil prices and metal material hikes), the firm should diversify, at least, in portfolio investments.  It could place a stake in other companies not with different environments and risks compared to its own.  Shareholders value can be created when their risk is carefully calculated and spread especially at times when the cost of inputs are extraordinary compared with previous operations.  Fund management should be obtained in order to provide shareholders the option to diversify their investments to companies in which Tomkins is spreading its own risk.

 

            The firm must not overly focus on acquisitions.  This may halt its innovative capabilities since research and development feats are waived through buying companies which had already made them.  Yes, transfer of technology would be fast but can be offset by stagnant learning curve and employee urge to internalize innovation.  This situation departs to the firm’s commitment on long-run shareholder value since the risk of leaking the knowledge and loosing the knowledgeable people in the acquired firm are not minimized.  The advantage would turn out to be only temporary.

 

 

Appendices

 

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Financial Issues

 

 

 

 

 

Dividend payout

Constant at 12p

increased

Buyback Programs

Yes

Yes

none

Earnings per share

Normal range

Share price

 

Increased

No basis since it is a quarter performance

 

 

 

 

 

 

Business Issues

 

 

 

 

 

Highlight

Disposal of subsidiaries

New CEO

Acquisitions; geographical growth

 

 

Sales

Constant

Profit before tax

Constant

 

Note: Refer to financial statements for comparison

 

 

Bibliography

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CORPORATE STRATEGY

1. Identify and briefly describe the portfolio of businesses in the organization.

 

Tool & Die Design & Fabrication

            - Tool & Die Design & Fabrication refers to the stage wherein issues found during the prototype fabrication needs to be improved prior to any quantity production.

 

Prototype Fabrication

            - The prototype fabrication is the attempt to determine the completeness of the detailed design and to make appropriate corrections to the design documentation as necessary. This phase is a more detailed systems integration phase then the earlier integration that was performed during preliminary design. This phase is also the first integration of all the mechanical components in the assembled unit.

 

Precision Metal Stamping & Assembly

            - Stamping services is the process of creating three-dimensional parts, lettering, and other surface definition onto materials.  This is achieved through the use of forms and dies which are forced into the surface of the material by extreme pressure.  When removed, the patterns on the forms and dies are indelibly stamped into the material.  Many standard and exotic engineering materials can be stamped or formed with pressure, although metal stamping is the primary application.  Stamping and forming services providers are able to perform a number of different processes, which lead to different styles of finished product.  Some of these stamping techniques include fine blanking, deep drawing, wireforming, and fourslide and multislide stamping.

 

Electronics Manufacturing Services

            - Refers to the design, assemble, produce, and test electronic components and assembles for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Electronics manufacturing services (EMS) has also started to provide design services used in conceptual product development advice and mechanical, electrical, and software design assistance. Testing services perform in-circuit, functional, environmental, agency compliance, and analytical laboratory testing. Electronic manufacturing services are located across the United States and throughout the word and usually vary in terms of production capabilities and comply with various quality standards and regulatory requirements.

 

R&D and Manufacturer of Consumer Products

            - Manufacturer of consumer products refers to the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, by means of tools and a processing medium, and including all intermediate processes.

 

2. Prepare a list of the identifiable stakeholder groups for the organisation, what they contribute to the organisation, what they expect from the organisation and what the organisation expects from them.

Focus-tech Holding Pte Ltd

64,982,822

17.40

HSBC (Singapore) Nominees Pte Ltd

41,599,000

11.14

DBS Nominees

36,765,905

9.84

Raffles Nominees

19,742,200

5.28

Dr Felix Ong Kim Huat

19,412,992

5.20

Seah Cheong Beng

7,911,544

2.12

Citibank Nominees Singapore

6,397,600

1.71

UOB Kay Hian Pte Ltd

6,152,000

1.65

United Overseas Bank Nominees

5,100,000

1.36

OCBC Securities Private Ltd

4,859,400

1.30

Seah Chiong Kok

4,741,540

1.27

Citibank Consumer Nominees

4,356,200

1.17

DBS Vickers Securities(S)

3,253,012

0.87

OCBC Nominees Singapore

2,804,200

0.75

Hong Leong Finance Nominees

2,648,802

0.71

Kim Eng Securities

2,619,200

0.70

HL Bank Nominees

2,090,000

0.56

Phillip Securities

1,718,340

0.46

Soh Lay Choo

1,449,110

0.39

Chio Kian Huat

1,326,800

0.35

 

 

 

Total

239,930,667

64.23

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The company's strategy is developed by the executive management, although it is normally necessary for the approval of the board to be obtained for major transactions or changes in strategy, and sometimes necessary for shareholder approval to be obtained as well.  The board usually meets monthly, and performs (or is supposed to perform) the functions of reviewing strategy and monitoring the performance of the executive management. This division of functions between the shareholders, the board, and the executive management is an inevitable consequence of the large size and scale of operation as of most companies.

 

3. Develop a set of Balanced Scorecard type of "perspectives" which are appropriate to the selected organisation. Develop a corporate strategy map which maps out the organisation's current corporate strategies within those perspectives. Develop an appropriate set of "metric" which can be used for corporate reporting and management purposes.

 

Relationships with competitors focus particularly on pricing and market positioning. In some markets, competitors have reached a point, in which there are generally understood rules of the competitive game. In others, there is no sense of a repeated game, and competition may be pursued to mutually destructive lengths. Sometimes technological change, or new entry, may shift an industry from stability to instability in its competitive process. Positioning and pricing are relevant to relationships with customers as well as with competitors. Advertising and branding are mechanisms by which firms communicate with their customers, but are also strategic tools governed by competitive interactions.

 

The strategy of the firm is the match between its internal capabilities and its external relationships. It describes how it responds to its suppliers, its customers, its competitors, and the social and economic environment within which it operates. The analysis of strategy uses our experience of the past to develop concepts, tools, data, and models which will illuminate these decisions in future. Success in business derives from adding value of your own, not diminishing that of your competitors, and it is based on distinctive capability, not destructive capacity. Distinctive capability becomes harder, not easier, to maintain as size increases. Yet in descriptions of both business and public policy, the equation of scale, power, and effectiveness is often simply assumed.

 

Strategy Map:

            Developing strategy map in context of the perspectives recurs attention to understanding the basic structure of strategy, learning and mastering the nature of business relationships, acknowledging Seksun distinctive capabilities offered by its Human Resource people and creating a competitive advantage from these distinctive capabilities.

 

Metric 1: Market Position and Product Price

An effective metric to consider are the issues of market position and product price. The two key influences on market prices are the costs of firms and the value offered to consumers. The less stable the competitive environment, the greater is the degree to which prices will be determined by cost rather than value. In the worst case, prices can be driven down to marginal or incremental cost. Marginal and incremental costs are often thought to be very low, but I explain how this is often a mistaken view and describe how activity-based costing helps to bridge the gap between theoretical concepts of marginal cost and accounting systems of cost allocation.

 

In other market environments there is more opportunity for prices to reflect the value of products to customers. In these, market segmentation-the identification of as many distinct product and geographical markets as possible--is a principal means of securing as high a proportion as possible of the value offered to consumers as added value for the firm. There are two necessary conditions for effective market segmentation. There must be economically relevant differences between the separated markets. These may arise from differences in the incomes of customers, or in the ways they use the product, or in competitive structure.

 

Metric 2: Competitive Environments

            Positioning decisions are partly dictated by the firm's distinctive capability. Some firms are naturally suited to up- or down-market positions. But positioning is also a matter of competitive dynamics. When there are few firms in a particular market, clustering behaviour--in which several firms jostle for the same market position--is a likely outcome. As the number of firms in the market increases, they are likely to spread themselves more evenly across the range of available positions.

 

Increasingly, a product can only be described by reference to a wide range of its characteristics. Many different features of a car are relevant to potential buyers, and a supermarket must decide which selection of many thousands of goods to hold in stock. For commodities like these, successful firms have to make a well-matched selection of product attributes. For these firms, focus--the consistency of attributes with each other--may be as important as position. Shifts of market position, which require changes in customer perception as well as product specification, need to anticipate competitor responses. They raise special difficulties for multiple-attribute products.

 

Metric 3: Advertising and Branding

While advertising creates brands, there are some differences between the functions of advertising and of branding. Brands are more often discussed than defined. A brand is established when an item sells for more than a functionally equivalent product. It is that characteristic which distinguishes a brand from the name of a product. The most usual reason for a price premium--and the most profitable reason--is that the customer is uncertain about the attributes of the product and is reassured by the supplier's reputation. But brands have other purposes. Some brands are little more than labels, although labels have their uses. Brands may be used by consumers to signal information about themselves to others--these are what are usually meant by brand images. Yet other brands may be attached to distinctive recipes or incumbent positions. The greatest corporate successes built around advertising and branding are those based on brands which have established several of these characteristics.

 

4. Identify and critically discuss the major corporate strategies that have been employed by this organisation during the last 5 years.

           

            The Seksun group has been shaping itself in growing as a company upon the  guiding vision of the simple notions of (1) developing its expertise, (2) Expansion of its company (3) Their commitment and resolve for service and quality (4) and its pursuance for results in conjunction with its set objectives and goals.

In a more definite and recent perspective, Seksun believes that the Hard disk drives (HDD) industry is resuming healthy growth boosted by new applications for HDDs in consumer electronics devices, such as digital music players, digital cameras, digital entertainment systems, etc. Additionally, they also believe that demand for HDD components in these new devices will significantly increase production volumes that will improve the utilization rates of their FIPG operations, allowing it to contribute positively to their net profit last 2005.

 

The group, however, anticipates prices of raw materials to gain further in 2005. While raw material price increases have been factored into the selling prices for new programmes, the increase in prices of raw materials for existing programmes is likely to be partially or fully absorbed by the group.

 

Seksun believes that its shareholders will profit from the agreement with ZF Array and the adoption of a strategy to target Seksun's contract manufacturing operations at customers seeking low-to mid-volume production capabilities. This strategy will leverage on ZF Arrays San Jose-based product development centre and Seksun’s lower-cost Asian operating environment. While there would be no material impact on Seksun’s financial performance for FY 2005, they are confident that the expansion of the contract manufacturing operations will produce longer-term benefits for the performance of the Group and better returns for their shareholders.

…“The current year will also see us adopting a strategy to intensify our focus on our contract manufacturing operations for the Consumer Electronics segment…”

Given the above, Seksun expects that they will remain profitable for the current financial year.

 

Analysis:

…In 1959 BMW was on the edge of bankruptcy. The company recovered to become one of the world's most profitable automobile manufacturers. Honda became the leading supplier of motor cycles in the United States within five years of entering the market…

 

Success is most illuminating when contrasted with failures. Corporate success, of the kind achieved by BMW, Honda, and Glaxo, is not the realization of visions, aspirations, and missions--the product of wish-driven strategy. It is the result of a careful appreciation of the strengths of the firm and the economic environment it faces. But nor is success often the realization of a carefully orchestrated corporate plan. The strategy of successful firms is adaptive and opportunistic. Yet in the hands of a successful company an adaptive and opportunistic strategy is also rational, analytic, and calculated. The capacity to adapt does not mean waiting for something to turn up for opportunism is only productive for a firm which knows which opportunities to seize and which to reject. 

 

5. Discuss what you perceive to be the corporate direction and governance for this organisation?

 

Additional directives of which Seksun wishes to achieve are as follows: (1) Proposed listing for China operations in two years. The China operations have the required three year profit track record, having been profitable since inception. According to press reports, after tax profit from Seksun's China operations in 1999, 2000 and 2001 were 10.8m RMB (S$2.4m), 16.5m RMB (S$3.6m) and 30.8m RMB (S$6.8m) respectively, or 39%, 44% and 70% of group net profit (2) Move into contract manufacturing to expand service offering. Seksun bought into a contract manufacturing business last year by paying RM1.85m for a 56% stake in a Johor plant. The motivation was to offer more services its customers to deepen the relationship. The plant is already producing game controllers for the Xbox and Digital Media Recorders (which operates in DVD, SVCD, VCD, CD-Audio, MP3 and MPEG standards) for Seagate. Digital Media Recorders use a built-in HDD. With a full year contribution in FY02, Seksun is targeting to bring the business to profitability this year. (3) Lowest valuations in the sector. Current valuations do not justify Seksun's exposure to the strongest growth trends in the HDD industry and its track record of profit growth in a volatile sector. Unlike many of its peers, Seksun has stayed profitable throughout its operating history, which is a commendable track record given the industry's boom and bust trends.

 

These programmes are in conjunction with the Seksun group’s mission and vision statements which specifically underscores its quality policy on total customer satisfaction. While delivering products and services which meet all relevant requirements on time and by doing right the first time. Additionally Seksun continually reviews and improves the effectiveness of their quality management system to remain current and competitive.

 

6. Identify and discuss any current issued of corporate direction and governance for this organisation.

 

…A company's social responsibility program has three major areas: complying with laws, setting -- and abiding by -- moral and ethical standards, and philanthropic giving…

 

Social responsibility is a major subject of concern and action for all but the smallest or least aware of companies. Today it is generally accepted that business firms have social responsibilities that extend well beyond what in the past was commonly referred to simply as the "business economic function."

 

Quite often the responsibility for actions in this area is vested in an individual or small staff, frequently within the human resources management area. Personnel assigned to this area, then, have responsibility for social issues in three major areas: (1) Total compliance with international, federal, state, and local legislative laws and acts (2) Moral and ethical standards and procedures under which the firm will operate (3) Philanthropic giving.

 

Most companies find it no simple matter to formulate and implement socially responsible actions and programs. However, all companies must become concerned and involved in this area. To operate without major disruptions, a company must at all times be in compliance with legal requirements -- international, federal, state, and local. It must develop, establish, implement, and police a code of ethical and moral conduct for all members of its organization. In the area of philanthropic activity, where there is considerably more latitude of operations in how, when, where, and even if the company or division wants to contribute money or other resources to "worthy causes," the firm must deliberate about and resolve many questions prior to establishing fair and workable guidelines.

 

In compliance with this business requirement, Seksun has been awarded as among top SGX's "Most Transparent Companies" last 13th September 2002. Furthermore, Seksun has been granted ISO/TS 16949: 2002 Certified IATF Cert. No.:0022032 and ISO 9001: 2000 Cert. No.: 160220

HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Performance Appraisal in Organizations

 

Introduction

            Ten years ago, Human Resource Management was almost an unknown term in Asia.  Training, selection, and performance appraisal were given very short shrift, and staff specialists, when they existed, were known as Personnel Managers, or had a dual role of Administration Manager with a "Personnel" tag thrown in for good measure.  Back in those days, Asian companies were not aware of how effective management of the human resource had a major bearing on the bottom line.  The educational sector gave little support.  Professional associations were fledgling to say the least.  A "personnel" position was often something in which you ended up in after failing to make sales and seen as a dead end position.  The National University of Singapore, the government anointed showcase of an Asian university did not offer one unit in psychology.  China funded anything to do with science and technology, but soft sciences such as management and HRM were ignored.

 

Why Research is required?

            A 1993 survey indicated that many Singaporeans are dissatisfied with the performance appraisal systems of their employers.  Reports in the popular press here appear to gloss over the many difficulties presented by performance appraisal and/or performance management systems.

            This is to review recent research and thought on overcoming the problems encountered with common appraisal practices, and to suggest options available to Singaporean employers.  An employee survey from one organization is used to illustrate how employee input can be helpful to human resource practitioners in diagnosing problems with appraisal systems and in recommending remedial actions.

 

 

Research Methods

            Current suggested solutions to these appraisal problems include: 1) modification of the appraisal format either by adding or deleting performance categories, quantifying performance standards, or substituting goal achievement for dimensional ratings; 2) training of appraisers to more accurately observe and evaluate individual performance; and 3) abolishing individual performance ratings and merit-related pay by substituting other performance related policies, group and work unit appraisal, or practices based on total quality management. These suggestions warrant careful examination in light of recent research.

 

Basis of Evaluation of research methods

            The reported 70% of Singaporeans who perceive their appraisal systems to be ineffective is consistent with world-wide reactions to appraisal.  For example, in the United States surveys by both the Mercer and Wyatt consulting firms report that a majority of firms are currently experiencing problems with their performance appraisal/management systems ( 1995;  1995;, 1995).  One major problem with these systems is an inability to translate organizational goals into appropriate goals for jobs and individuals. Other problems include achieving accurate assessments of individuals’ performance and individuals’ negative and demotivated reactions to appraisal.

 

Collection and Analysis of Information

            Searching for the Perfect Format. The wealth’ of appraisal formats currently available is readily apparent, from graphic rating scales to behaviorally-anchored and behavior-observation scales; and from essays and critical incidents to management-by-objectives and other types of goal setting programs. Despite all these attempts to develop foolproof formats, research continues to reveal that format has little to do with the effectiveness of performance management and appraisal systems (, 1988).  Even pleas for use of objective, quantifiable criteria have not solved appraisal problems (, 1994).  However, there is evidence that goal setting used in place of ratings can improve the contribution of appraisal processes to individuals’ performance (1994).

Rater Training.  Rater training usually focuses on one or more strategies: reducing rating errors, establishing performance dimensions or frames-of-reference, and improving accuracy of observation of performance (, 1994).  Rater error training attempts to teach appraisers how to avoid such judgment errors as halo (generalizing from one incident or attribute) or contrast (comparing one employee to another) effects.  Performance dimension training often involves appraisers in developing rating scales which are defined in terms of the performance dimensions they are to measure.  Frame-of-reference training provides raters with a common set of standards with which they are to use to do their rating.  Finally, behavior observation training teaches raters’ processes for improving their abilities to detect, recognize, and recall behavioral episodes of work performance.  An overall review of the studies on rater training shows that as long as appraisers are not forced to follow a predetermined distribution of ratings, each of these approaches helps to produce more accurate performance ratings (, 1994).

Limitations

Arguably, the ideal rater training program should incorporate all of these forms of training in order to maximize rating accuracy.  There is only one major caveat with regard to this research on appraisal training - the performance which must be the focus of the training should represent the ratees’ respective contribution to organizational goals, an identification task which we have yet to do well ( 1995).

 

Abolishment of Appraisals. Recently, an increasing number of organizations are abolishing their performance appraisal systems along with their traditional merit-pay plans and replacing them with a variety of programs.  A survey of 181 manufacturing and service companies in Midwestern U.S.A. found that 11% have stopped using annual appraisals and a further 25% are planning to abolish them within the next two years ( 1994).  For example, Lyondell Petrochemical replaced its appraisal/merit system with market rates of pay for jobs and profit-sharing bonuses accompanied by special recognition for outstanding individual contributions (, 1995).  Eastern Realty Investment eliminated its performance rating system and substituted annual reviews of individual’s strengths, contributions, and accomplishments as well as areas for improvement. Its employees who are also at market rates of pay receive lump-sum annual payments.

Another alternative to appraisal based merit systems is the return to the old practice of gift-giving.  Gifts as reward for outstanding performance are provided by organizations as diverse as Avon Products, the British Automobile Association, Levi Strauss and the British brewery, Whitbred Inns ( 1994).  Yet, other organizations have replaced performance appraisal of individuals with appraisal of work groups/teams ( 1996;  1994).  Work unit performance can be measured by ratios of outputs to inputs which are determined by the unit’s characteristics and objectives.  Feedback from such measures can greatly reduce negative employee reactions if performance is below expectations, as (1) relationship with superiors is not an issue and (2) unit results are more easily accepted by the unit’s employees (.).  However, if an organization’s reward system revolves around team performance; similar financial rewards for each team member can create individual perceptions of inequity as individual contributions are likely to be dissimilar.  Such inequities are thought to be resolved by team members developing their own intangible rewards such as recognition ( 1994).

Another substitute for performance appraisal asks executives and their managers to motivate their employees by focusing on work processes rather than individuals’ behavior - that is, adopting some type of total quality management program.  Deming, one of the strongest opponents of traditional appraisal systems, argued that appraisals, particularly when ranking of individuals was involved, are demeaning to those appraised.  He believed that appraisals allow managers to shift to their employees the major responsibility of creating effective organizational outcomes with the human and material capital available to them (, 1986).

Other TQM experts, who have referred to individual performance appraisal practices as the most serious obstacle to the successful implementation of TQM programs, support ’s opinion of individual appraisals for several reasons ( 1989; , 1994).  First, the goal of TQM programs is to constantly strive for the improvement of work processes rather than the improvement of individual employee behavior and/or performance.  Management, in conjunction with its employees, seeks to identify barriers to quality, serves the interests of internal and external customers, and thereby maintains an organizational climate of continuous improvement.  Second, a key to a TQM approach is the concept of variability. It occurs naturally within any work process.  The causes of that variability need to be identified. Deming believed that less than 10% of variability is usually under the control of employees.  By holding employees accountable for their performance through performance appraisals, managers fail to address the problems their employees face with the work processes.  Therefore managers miss the opportunity to control most causes of variability in performance, and contribute to suboptimal organizational performance.  Third, statistical process control is used to systematically uncover, communicate, and deal with problems that impede quality and productivity.  The process is seen by all involved as that which needs evaluating and blaming, not the employees.  As long as management has selected and/or trained employees to be competent in their jobs, appraisal of their performance becomes unnecessary.  The employees who contribute the most to the organization are asked for input into how their personal processes enable them to accomplish more than their peers so that they may be emulated. Individual performance appraisal, which usually assumes that employees are solely responsible for their performance, can only divert attention from the sources of most performance problems within the work system.  Employees become defensive for many reasons, not least of which is fear of losing Out to their peers and are not motivated to improve the work system (, 1994).

 

Application of Recommendations        

            Given this research evidence and expert recommendations for improving performance appraisal systems, how should HR executives apply this knowledge?  First of all, continuous assessment of personnel practices should be an ongoing HR practice.  An especially effective method of evaluating appraisal practices is to ask for anonymous feedback about the system from both appraisers and appraised.  Secondly, with this feedback, many problems can be identified and effective solutions can be derived from the application of our recently gained knowledge about appraisals.  As an example, we will review the results of such a feedback exercise carried out within a currently, highly successful Singaporean organization, and illustrate how to interpret the findings and suggest appropriate countermeasures.

            The appraisal system consists of two components - a review of the past year’s performance and a developmental assessment of potential for higher level jobs and accompanying training needs.  The content of the two components is also well-conceived.  The review of the past year’s performance includes sections outlining the job involved and the extent of its dynamic nature, a description of the achievement of the previous year’s goals which were established for the appraisee, a discussion of the factors that aided and impeded goal achievement, mutual identification of areas of future development, a listing of goals for the upcoming year and space for employee comment about the review.  The potential assessment categorizes the employee’s current performance in terms of expectations regarding performance levels for his position, as well as certain attributes deemed necessary for higher level positions.

This system, in particular the review of past performance, follows state-of-the-art principles in terms of: 1) using goal achievement in place of dimensional ratings, 2) tying goals to job responsibilities, 3) recognizing the dynamic nature of jobs and adjusting accordingly, 4) identifying and addressing factors affecting performance outside of an employee’s control, and 5) seeking an employee’s input and reactions to the appraisal process.  The recommended characteristics of the organization’s approach to assessment of potential include: utilization of multiple raters, several rating dimensions, and only a few categories of rank.

 

Conclusion

Although the degree of dissatisfaction with this appraisal system is consistent with the degree of dissatisfaction in performance appraisals in general, it is important not to generalize about the findings of this case because of the myriad of reasons for shortcomings in performance appraisal systems. What is generalizable about this case is the importance of obtaining feedback about rater and ratee reactions to the implementation of any new appraisal system. Are not organizations better off pilot testing changes in their performance appraisal practices with small subsets of their employees before making radical changes in their systems as was done in this case?  It is hoped that our arguments are persuasive in suggesting just how difficult it is to implement and maintain an effective performance appraisal system in any organization, let alone in a case like the one detailed here involving an excellently performing organization (1996).

 

 

 

REFERENCES

 

LEADERSHIP

This paper will discuss the challenges that leaders are likely to face during two critical positions. It will attempt to identify the problems that a leader will be facing when leading or guiding people on a face to face and in virtual situations. It will also highlight the proper conflict resolution styles that can be used to solve problems and disagreements.

            The first challenge that is faced by a leader in a virtual team is the process of communication. This process of communication does not only pertain to the voice mails, emails and other forms of electronic communications available today. Since members of the “virtual team” are separated, a leader cannot see, gauge and measure the facial expressions and other forms of nonverbal communications that is expressed by a member of a team (2000, p. 32). A member might be uneasy and unsure of the avenue that he is suggesting to the group but his non verbal signs that shows his/her true feelings are hidden from the leader and the other members of the group. This kind of situation would in turn send the wrong signal to the leader making the important decisions since he is just aware of the voice of the speaker ( 2000, p. 33). To be able to totally decide on something, a leader must grasp all factors and aspects of an operation.

            This concept will be ineffective since a leader cannot see the members of his group. One member can be hiding an important fact or suppressing a vital element that is critical to the decision making process of the whole group but the leader and the members cannot feel the lie and the deceit since the employee is hidden behind a screen. Virtual teams also promote impersonality between the leader and his members (2005, p. 102).  Virtual reality makes the members and the leader of the group experience that there is no camaraderie, friendship, unity and esprit de corps in the team lessening the effectivity and efficiency of the team as a whole ( 2004, p. 57).

            There is also the danger of breakdowns of communications when the team is in a virtual world. The network can crash, power can be cut off or system malfunctions can occur hindering the communication avenue that is present in connecting the leader and the members of the team ( 2004, p. 88). This breakdown in communication can facilitate ill-advised decisions and policies because not all members can be reached to contribute his/her expertise and opinion regarding a topic.

            At the same time, a leader can also be challenged during face to face situations. Face to face situations creates real and negative conflict when solving a problem. Frequent discussions, disagreements and petty arguments inside the team is witness and are in full view of the team sowing demoralization and deterioration inside the team. Disagreement and quarrels regarding designs, process etc. in face to face situations are factors against the leader because members are disheartened, discouraged and depressed when they see that other members are in conflict with each other. Since body language is clearly seen by all members of the team, members can be affected by the negative attitudes and comments being made by the other members of the group ( 2004, p. 66). Face to face situations can also promote disinterest and distraction inside the ranks of the group since other factors must be considered while arriving at a decision like the environment, working area, ventilation and the overall wellbeing of the team ( 2005, p. 71).

            In the virtual condition the best approach to use is avoiding since the leader and members of the team are separated from each other by the Internet etc. At first glance, the best approach is forcing but since members are detached from each other a leader cannot totally coerce a person to do a certain task since the member being compelled wold just produce an output that is not satisfactory or he/she might totally cease from functioning.

            Forcing is an effective approach when teams are in a face to face situations since the leader can properly gauge the ability of the members of the group, he can assign a particular task for a member and observe the results. If the member is not effective, the leader can personally demand higher output while totally measuring the ability and competence of the member. The “force” approach is also viable in a face to face relationship since leaders can directly pressure the group and demand total efficiency. These acts can help strengthen or inspire the members to strive harder for a common goal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

 

 

LEADERSHIP

1. If you worked for a company like Cisco Systems that has a strong vision for the future, how would that affect you compared with working for a company that did not have a vision?

 

A company's mission and vision has long been regarded as a way to express a company's corporate character. The most successfully positioned companies and brands in terms of growth, financial performance, visibility and market share are those that have linked a powerful brand positioning to an inspiring, overarching vision. If I am to work for a company which doesn’t have a vision for itself, I suppose I am left to myself to be the best in everything I can do to help the company grow. But in as much as I an very much endeared to helping the company, I fear that I may be in the losing end since, as it is well know, success is much well achieved by many and the absence vision statement frpm the company well regarded as true in poor organization practice.

 

2. What conditions limit the discretion of a CEO?

The development of well-written vision, mission and values statements signals intent and direction, an essential part of enthusiastic execution and good governance. Every CEO of a company must make it a point to constitute a vision statement for the company as this well defines the strategy in simpler words on how the company desires and what it intends to achieve.  Furthermore, the vision statement serves as a constant reminder on the general resolve of the company.

LEADERSHIP

1) What type of power does your colleague appear to be using?

            My colleague appears to be using coercive power on me to make me feel bad about the whole situation.

 

2) What type of influence could you possibly use to gain his co-operation?

In order for me to gain his cooperation, I would settle for the bargaining power.

 

3) If you were involved in a situation like this, what could you do to resolve it successfully yet ethically?

 

            One of the ways is to create a sense of obligation. Allowing him/her to recognize that friendship carries with it certain obligations, from there, we both can then develop friendship with each other.

Another way I could use would be for me to try and foster with my colleague’s unconscious identification with them or with the ideas which they believe in. This is because when a person finds a leader or a friend both consciously and more importantly, unconsciously an ideal person, the more he or she will defer to that person.

All in all, power and influence are integral components of social interaction which gives life in an organization. The vantage point is to try to understand the organizational behaviour, the politics of it.

 

 

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Society today has modernized the social rules which bind us all. And to regulate the interactions within the community, legal procedures had been formulate to solve these disputes when the individuals come into conflict and are not able to come up with an agreement by themselves. People are so occupied with the turbulent character of conflict that they celebrate its resolution at various levels: within our family, community, and nation and at the international level. Conflict resolution, like conflict and cooperation itself, is a natural process.

I consider the Natural Conflict Resolution method to be my most preferred method since to live and enjoy the benefits of social living, individuals must come together and resolve the need for endless and useless mitigating competition and solving conflicts of interest. Furthermore, this follows the natural process of conflict management and is an essential fixture in any social group of any group-living creatures. As such, in referring to the evolutionary theory (, 1989) which says that it is logical to anticipate conflict resolution designs as natural phenomenon which works on asserting the unity of groups and the consociated benefits this brings to every member. This makes sense considering that solving a natural phenomenon can be done by a natural process too. Furthermore, even the least spontaneous forms of conflict resolution, such as the mediation of international conflict, are based on the natural fundamentals of the phenomenon, that is, interpersonal relationships. In sum, conflict among monkeys, people, and even entire groups or nations follows a certain dynamic that is universal, and so is its resolution.

An area to consider as one of the weaknesses of the Natural Conflict Resolution method is the emotion which is also thought as an intervening component between both the internal and external elements which leads to the conflict of interest and its resolution. Different internal and external stimuli produce different emotions of variable intensities, which in turn contribute to different behavioral and physiological responses.

Reference:

 

LEADERSHIP

            This paper will discuss the topic of ethical leadership that is clearly defined by a particular situation and case analysis presented to the writer. It will attempt to present the perspective and outlook of the writer with regards to the case analysis and to fully and adequately answer questions regarding the said topic.

            After surveying and fully understanding the situation presented by the case analysis I can say that if I were , I would choose to maintain the clinics in the short run. This conclusion is made because of weighting and seeing the disadvantages and advantages of maintaining the clinics. At a quick glance, the maintenance of the clinic is detrimental to the functions and wellbeing of the hospital since it is strapped on fundings and the order was to improve the quality of care for patients while making the financial status of the hospital stable. To improve the quality of service and care inside the hospital, funding and money will be needed to invest in new equipments and personnel but this is impossible because the hospital is funding several clinics that cater to the poor areas of the cities.

            In maintaining the clinics, the hospital will be in an advantageous position because it can have access to city funds. Although closing the clinics would greatly benefit the hospital, this benefit will only be temporary an short live because although it will save money, the hospital cannot have access to another source of fund and money provided by the government. The keeping and maintenance of clinics for the poor and depressed areas in the community is also a noble service that is performed by the company. The hospital would also endear itself to all people of the city because it devotes it time, management and personnel in the performance of a humanitarian task without any form of incentives and rewards. This plan of action is also advantageous because it conforms to ethical guideline and principle where it states that the company cannot think only in terms of profits and gains but it must also consider the human and societal aspects of providing services and goods ( 67, 2001). Aside from thinking and driving the company towards a better and favorable position in terms of competition, the organization must also be governed with ethical standards that pertain to helping and supporting the needy and the less privileged portions of the society.

            A potential area where organizational politics can be used in this situation is the case regarding the statement by the commissioner of health services where she stated that the local government will not provide funds for the hospital if the clinics are eliminated. Limited resources in terms of funding are used to further political self interest and other gains that can be derived from the situation in relation to the case analysis ( 1995, p. 127).

            As an ethical leader, there are many considerations that must be examined in this case. One aspect is the ethics of and dilemma of choosing a moral position from a position that is beneficial from the financial point of view. This ethical issue is presented in the form of providing or not providing clinics to the poor areas of the city while the CEO has orders to bring the financial house in order by eliminating added expenses. Another ethical consideration is the influence and power exerted by politics and political figures such as the commissioner of health services.  As a leader, would he abide and follow the instructions of the commissioner or use his own judgment and understanding in managing the hospital.

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

 

CASE STUDY: AUSTRALIAN GAS LIGHT COMPANY

Australian Gas Light Company

Since 1837 Australians have been discovering the utility of The Australian Gas Light Company's services. Australia's first energy company, AGL is the major electricity retailer in Australia and operates an electricity network. It is also a top gas retailer and distributor in Australia and New Zealand. AGL retails gas and electricity to 3 million residential, commercial, and industrial customers and has interests in gas transmission networks in Australia and New Zealand and has a gas company in Chile. AGL provides energy infrastructure through its Agility unit. The group plans to buy Southern Hydro in 2005 and then split its retail energy and infrastructure operations into two listed companies ().

Company’s Mission

AGL's continuing ambition is for their stakeholders to be their advocates. AGL see this as a barometer of their success.  For each key stakeholder groups have specific ambitions, linked to this philosophy.

These are to:

  • delight customers so they choose AGL first
  • reward shareholders so they feel good about their investment
  • motivate people so they want to achieve
  • give back to the community

Company’s Values

The company's purpose is to use energy to help people get on with their lives.  At the core of this effort is expertise in the energy industry, what they call energy know-how.  Underpinning that is a set of common values to guide behavior, thinking and decisions.  These values are achievement, credibility and teamwork.

To AGL:

  • achievement means working towards desired outcomes, reaching goals, making the right things happen and celebrating successes
  • credibility means being honest, acting with integrity and being good at what we do
  • teamwork means working well together for a common purpose

AGL want to continue to be known as the leading Australian energy company, whose expertise can be depended upon ().

Leadership Models

Employment Practices – AGL's workforce is drawn from a range of people with diverse skills and backgrounds. Their objective is to attract and retain high performing people.

Health, Safety and Environment – Keeping people safe and protecting the environment is essential to the way doing business at AGL.  The ongoing commitment and passion for making the workplace safer has resulted in AGL being a leader in safety performance within the energy industry.

Remuneration and Awards to Employees – AGL offer a market rated remuneration structure which aligns with other leading Australian organizations.  AGL remuneration structure is a combination of both fixed salary and incentives, both of which are aligned to performance.

 

REFERENCES

 

 

CORPORATE STRATEGY CASE STUDY: ORANGE MOBILE COMPANY

Strategic Analysis and Choice

Introduction

            The mobile Industry has been evolving now and then, from the “brick-size” phone to the size of a credit card, what comes next? In the advent of high-end technology, mobile phones become a necessity at the same time a leisure gadget that most teenagers enjoy. What has these phones got into? Well, they not only serve as communication purposes but it has become an icon, a fashion statement due to its complicated high-end features yet the simplicity of its function captures the heart of its consumers. In the words of (n.d.), “the mobile phone industry is certain to continue evolving, with some research suggesting that one day phones will take the place of credit cards and the remote control.” We are given the capacity to personalize our mobile phones in every aspect or features. Much more, with the growing innovation of mobile phones it has likely influenced the desires of every consumer; good news for mobile industries that they would be able to advance to next level. The current fads that the consumer has well appreciated are unlimited video clips, video phone calling, camera, photo message, downloadable ring tones, wallpapers and screen saver and most of all, the mp3 player, if this is now? What comes next? That is what we call the never-ending strategy.

            An example of a mobile industry is the Orange Mobile Company. It was launched last April 1994, Orange was the fourth entrant into an already crowded UK mobile phone market, with an ambitious aim: to become the mobile provider of choice by making communications an intuitive and easily accessible part of daily life. Orange enlisted the influential brand consultancy  for help in producing a brand identity, name and visual style that would create high awareness … and attract customers. The products and services they offer are: mobile phones where in they work closely with major manufacturers such as Motorola, Nokia and Samsung; the internet where one can go livebox and livemusic. Colour was used simply and confidently, complemented by simple language, short sentences and an easy to read typeface. Words spelt out the customer benefit rather than the technical specification of a product. By the time Orange was sold to Mannesmann AG in 1999 Orange had launched in Switzerland and Belgium and had licensed its brand to companies in Hong Kong, Australia, Israel and India ().

In particular, this paper will be concentrating on Orange Mobile Company; one of the leading mobile industries in UK, with regards to its strategic marketing analysis. This paper will be discussing the importance of understanding competitors and how this understanding may facilitate successful planning of marketing activities and analyze these activities to conceptualize a profitable plan. The purpose of this paper is to give the researcher wide knowledge over strategic analysis and apply this knowledge in assessing the strategic analysis of Orange Mobile Company in particular context with its strategic business units , (France Telecom rebranded Wanadoo, and Equant ) and in the maintenance of the brand value in competition with other mobile industries (Cellnet and Vodafone). An in-depth analysis of product portfolio strategy with the use of its method, the Boston Consulting Group Box (BCG Box) is required as to facilitate the researcher in its aims for the paper.

Strategy

            Strategy as defined by (Exploring Corporate Strategy) as the direction and scope of an organization over the long-term; which achieves advantage for the organization through of configuration of resources within a challenging environment to meet the needs of the market and fulfill the needs of stakeholder expectations. Strategies exist in any areas of an organization from a group of businesses to the individuals working with it. The different levels of a business where in strategy became one of their cornerstones. We have the corporate strategy, business unit strategy and operational strategy. Corporate strategy is concerned with the overall purpose and scope of the business to meet stakeholder’s expectation. When we say, market scope it classifies as to which market a business should compete in and what kind of activities to be involved in the business incorporating the values and expectations of those who have power in and around the business. This level often stated their strategic decision-making through their mission statement. The said mission statement would guide them as to what they should do for the betterment of the business for the years to come. Business unit strategy is concerned on how the business competes successfully in the market. This refers as to what products that shall meet the demands of the customers, necessary skills that are required in gaining advantage over the competitors to further exploit and/or create opportunities. The firm’s operational strategy concerns mainly of the assets, finances, technical competence and the people. Job performance is influenced by the employee's knowledge, attitude and skills in handling their day-to-day activities and issues. This is by upholding work ethics within the organization and during business affairs.

Strategic Management

            Strategic Management is showing strategic timing in selling a stock. The diagram shown below clearly pinpoints the corporate, business unit and the operational strategies in the simplified five tasks.

Figure 1: Five Task of Strategic Management

Source:  1995

In order for the said tasks to be realized there must be a thorough coordination with other departments so that strategic decisions answer the mission statement of the organization. It is an on-going process that challenges the organization to convert their mission statement into organizational objectives that pushes the firm to be inventive intentional and focused. In this way they could keep track of the company’s performance thus, error would be prevented and they would be able to dispose parts of their business that cannot generate adequate returns or that does not generate with their business strategy.

Strategic Analysis

In thorough strategic management process, it has three main components shown in the figure below:

Figure 2: Strategic Management Process

Source:

Strategic analysis by the term itself means it is by using strategic tools in order to methodically assess and analyze the firm’s strength in order to propel company’s ambition to its zenith considering their position or their standing in the competitive market and the influencing environment that might alter or improve their status. The strategic choice would involve the stakeholder’s expectation as their basis in making strategic choices and these choices are screened very well in order to implement these options. Strategic implementation is the crucial and most difficult of the three since; it has to be implemented into an action, and that the organization would act as a whole.

Business Portfolio

            The Business Portfolio is the collection of business and products that make up the company. The best business portfolio is one that fits the company’s strengths and helps exploit the most attractive opportunities. The company must (1) analyze its current business portfolio and decide which business should receive more or less investment, and (2) develop growth strategies for adding new products and businesses to the portfolio, whilst at the same time deciding when products and businesses should no longer be retained.

Methods of Portfolio Planning

            The two best-known portfolio planning methods are from the Boston Consulting Group and by General Electricity/Shell. In each method, the first method is to identify various Strategic Business Units (“SBU’s”) in a company portfolio. An SBU is a unit of the company that has a separate mission and objectives and objectives and that can be planned independently from the other businesses. An SBU can be a company division, a product line or individual brands – it all depends on how the company is organized.

The Boston Consulting Group Box (“BCG Box”)

            It is a means of analysing and categorizing the performance of business units in large diversified firms by reference to market share and growth rates. Four main categories are displayed in a two-dimensional matrix, which seeks to identify those business units that generate cash and those that use it, and then to relate the position of the business units to the formulation of an overall business strategy (; 2002).

Resources are allocated to business units according to where they are situated on the grid as follows:

Figure 3: The Boston Consulting Group Box

Source:

Using the BCG Box, a company classifies all its SBU’s according to two dimensions: on the horizontal axis: relative market share – this serves as a measure of SBU in the strength market; on the vertical axis: market growth share rate - this provides a measure of market attractiveness.

By dividing the matrix into four areas, four types of SBU can be distinguished:

·  Stars – a business unit that has a large market share in a fast growing industry. Stars may generate cash, but because the market is growing rapidly they require investment to maintain their lead. If successful, they become cash cows ().

            In relation, Orange mobile company has made strategic partnerships and alliances with some of the world’s leading suppliers and operators. They established the FreeMove alliance in 2003.  In 2006 they were joined by leading Nordic operator, . This alliance ensures that customers have access to the same familiar services, like voicemail or customer service, abroad as well as at home. You can now even see who is calling when you roam on member networks. The services they offered are classifies into two: business and individual services. In the business sector – roaming services for international businesses, each with a consistent call rate for calls made and received when users are roaming abroad, and for international calls made from their home countries; also offered, data services including both GPRS and BlackBerry™. In this sector, they have an International customer service with International Business Care group, a multi-lingual team dedicated to providing great service to multi-national organizations. In the individual sector, they have the FreeMove answer, wherein they just have to dial their usual short codes to access voicemail and see whose calling; there is no need to re-programme the saved numbers for them to work internationally (). Aside from it, they join with Cingular Wireless combining okay strengths of coverage, network performance and business support services. These functionalities are the STARS of the Orange mobile company; the joint services offered will attract future customers as well as prospect businesses who would like to venture business with them. Thus, an increase demand of services also increases their sales.

·  Cash Cow – a business unit that has a large market share in a mature, slow growing industry. Cash cows require little investment and generate cash that can be used to invest in other business units ().

France telecom acquired the Orange brand last August 2000 in effort to acquire the power of the Orange brand. Most of France Telecom’s mobile businesses were rebranded to Orange. France Telecom’s ambition is to be the first integrated telecoms operator in Europe and leader for convergence, delivering a ‘New Experience of Telecoms’ for its customers. This includes the rebranding of Equant and Wanadoo on 1 June 2006 - forming part of an international strategy to use the Orange brand commercially for mobile, fixed-line, broadband, multi-play and business offerings. This means a simple, single-company experience for customers as well as an exciting new generation of enhanced communications and converged services. The rebranding of the said business added brand value to the Orange brand. Knowing this, those individuals who use the previous brand now use the power name of Orange. This is an example of Cash cow since, the Equant and Wanadoo are already legitimate brands that are already recognized by the mobile market. The effect of rebranding escalated the number of prospect customers thus, Orange Company can generate fund from this to support other businesses that is still fresh in the competitive mobile market or other projects that has promoted the brand value of Orange. For an instance, the collaboration of Orange with PalmSource in the Palm Powered Mobile World Program, the joint forces of the two will bring a cutting - edge Palm Powered smartphones to the market.

·                     Question Marks (or Problem Children) are businesses or products with low market share but which operate in higher growth market share at the expense of more powerful competitors. Management have to think about “question marks” - which one should they invest in? Which ones should they allow to fail or shrink?

In this category, these are the probable business units that might not continue to share in the market that will lead to product failure due to poor promotion and advertisement and the price is just costly that people wouldn’t spend a cent; or it might become the Stars and in the long run the Cash cows. The business units I’m referring are of those newly integrated services and products since; it is new there will always be questions that will arise and strategic planning must continue on and on in order, to finalize what particular procedure should be implemented. In addition, it is necessary that management of the marketing function be built upon purposively defined and analytically based marketing strategies. The strategic marketing planning, according to  (2006), involves basically three stages: (1) segmenting the market; (2) profiling the market segments; and (3) developing the market segment marketing strategy. Pease refer to Figure 4 for the outline. Considering that globally, it is a competitive market, it is a must that strategic planning must be done before making unnecessary unfit choices. After such strategic choices, strategic analysis is done to further enhance the chance of making it big.

Text Box:  
Segmenting the Market
(First Stage)
 
Geographic 
Demographic 
Psychographic 
Behavior

           

 

Text Box:  
Profiling the Market Segments
(Second Stage)
 
Revenue Potential
Market Share Potential
Profitability Potential

 

 

Text Box:  
Developing a Market Segment Marketing Strategy
(Third Stage)
 
Market Leader or Product Line Extension
Mass Marketing or Targeted Marketing
Direct or Indirect Sales

 

 

 

Figure 4: Strategic Marketing Planning

Source: Allen 2006

 

 

In strategic analysis, the company must also learn to comprehend the competitors of a business in a given industry and developing methods as to distinguish it from them is a very relevant and critical aspect which influences the development of the competitive strategy of the firm. In addition, it is also an important aspect of the strategic planning process as it (1) facilitates the management to understand their competitive advantage or disadvantages associated to their competitors; (2) creates understanding of the competitors past, present, and future strategies; (3) offer an informed basis to develop strategies to gain and maintain competitive advantage in the future; and (4) to facilitate the firm in forecasting the returns that may be made from future investments ( 2005).

             (2000) notes that understanding competitors is the core to making marketing plans and strategy. A firm has to compare its products, prices, channels of distribution and promotional methods with those of its competitors on a regular basis to make sure that it is not at a disadvantage. The process of the competitor analysis basically constitutes three steps. The first step is to identify the firm’s competitors. As for Orange Mobile Company, it has several competitors such as Vodafone and Cellnet.

The second step of the competitor analysis is the assessment of its competitors. This may be done through benchmarking as the firms will first have to determine the objectives of its competitors as well as their objectives, then later on assessing the strengths and weaknesses of its competitors.  (1997) notes that benchmarking sustains organizational growth as well as facilitates world-class competitive status.

            Finally, the third step in the competitor analysis is the selection of competitors to avoid or to attack. After the assessment of the firm’s competitors, the firm will have to formulate the specific strategies that will give them the competitive advantage against its competitors.

            It must be noted that during the process of competitor analysis and the implementations of its strategies, the firm will have to assess which of the competitors’ strategies that they will have to follow or not. The second stage which allows the company to compare their operations with others will necessitate some degree of change within the organization. Thus it should be very well noted that the company only as to follow the strategies that will apply to their business as every business is unique in their own nature. These strategies will have to be in lined with the company’s philosophies as well.

·                     Dogs are the combination of low growth rate and market share is typical of these businesses and products, which operate in mature markets. Firms frequently face strategic decision regarding whether to continue to support dogs or to implement a divestment strategy. Barriers to exit (factors that make it difficult for a company to leave a make a market that is no longer profitable or that has ceased to provide an acceptable return on capital) would also need to be considered (  2002).

Using the BCG Box to determine the strategy is a way of maximizing the long-run interests of every group. Another is that by balancing properly the interests of major stakeholders, the long-range interests of all will be maximized. However, conventional strategic thinking suggests there are four possible strategies for each SBU: (1) build share: here the company can invest to increase market share like turning the Question mark into a Star (2) hold: the company invest just enough to keep the SBU in its present position (3) harvest: the company reduces the amount of investment in order to maximize the short term cash flows and profits from the SBU. This could be shown by turning the Stars into Cash cows (4) divest: the company can divest the SBU by phasing it out or selling it – on order to use resources elsewhere by investing into more promising Question marks.

Conclusion:

The mobile industry has already extended throughout the world. Firms that operate within the mobile industry are categorized as a market structure that is highly competitive. Orange Mobile Company and its strategic marketing planning has been the focus of this research is that the Orange mobile Company as a market leader in the mobile industry.

The Strategic Management is the process of specifying an organization's objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve these objectives, and allocating resources so as to implement the plans. There is a need to have a strategy that is concerned with the most important decisions made in an enterprise. The central thrust of these decisions is the future of the organization. In here, strategic planning must be done to "create" more desirable future results by (a) influencing the outside world or (b) adapting current programs and actions so as to have more favorable outcomes in the external environment.

This paper has strongly recognized the importance of understanding competitors in strategic marketing planning for the benefits that it gives to the successful planning of marketing activities. These benefits and advantages include the following. First, understanding competitors will facilitate the firm’s management to understand their competitive advantage and disadvantages in relation to their competitors. Second, understanding competitors will also generate understanding of the past, present and future strategies of the firm. Third, it offers the firm an informed basis to develop strategies in order to gain or maintain competitive advantage against their competitors in the future. Lastly, understanding competitors will also facilitate the firm in forecasting or predicting the financial returns that they made from future investments.

To further influence the strategic analysis of the Orange mobile Company, we use the BCG – share matrix. The experience curve represents a volume-cost relationship. It is argued that, as the cumulative historical volume of output increases, unit costs will fall at a geometric rate. This relationship is said to result from specialization, standardization, learning, and scale effects. The firm with the largest cumulative output will have lower costs, suggesting a strategy of early and price policies to develop volume.

Reference:

ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIC PLAN

Introduction

 

This essay provides a rundown on the basic application of generic strategies in two organizations that are in different industrial sectors.  In lieu to this essay, the chosen two organizations are both multinational companies and are manufacturer of goods that is primarily driven by the companies’ respective expertise on modern innovations.  The two organizations being chosen has proved their mark in the business, thus exploring on their current generic strategies is interesting.  Nike and Honda motors, are in the shoe industry and in automotive industry pertaining to the latter. Further, since both are not domestic organizations, accessibility to primary data are barely unachievable though the supporting data can still purport to the critical analysis that is to be made by the two organizations.  To begin with, an overview of the nature of generic strategies would be of help to better understand the whole context and useful in the formulation of critical analysis for the current generic strategies being employed by Nike and Honda. 

Generic strategies was formulated by Michael Porter that has considered a category scheme consisting of three typed of strategies being employed by businnesses.  These are the level of differentiation, relative product cost, and scope of target market.  Further, these three generic strategies are defined along two dimensions namely strategic scope and strategic strength.  By strategic scope connotes the demand-side which focuses on the marketplace factors and the strategic strength on the other hand, connotes the supply-side in which it focuses internal environment of the company that would serve as the company’s competitive advantage.  However in the year 1980 in his classic book Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitor ( 1980), he altered the category scheme into cost leadership, differentiaton and market segment or also known as the focus segment.  To simplify the three revised and simplified generic strategies category scheme for business, an illustration of the ’s generic strategies will be shown in the diagram below:

image:PorterGenericStrategies.png

Diagram is from to be accessed through 

 

Cost leadership strategy place emphasis on efficiency through the production of high volumes and standardized products in order to take advantage the scale of economies and the curve effects being experienced.  Researches about the impact of profit on the market share indicated that firms with high market share were often profitable and so does with low market share, but for the firms with moderate market shares are the ones that is likely to be least profitable.   (1980) explains, high market shares were successful because they pursued a cost leadership strategy and firms with low market share were successful because they used market segmentation to focus on a small but profitable market niche.  The association of distribution strategy, on one hand, is in the acquisition distribution channels that is extensive, whereas, the promotional strategy, on the other hand, engages in the virtue from the low cost features of the products.  Several benefits can be reaped off from the successful implementation of the cost leadership strategies.  Among the several benefits that it can bring are the processing of engineering skills, the design of the products that provides easeness in the manufacturing process, sustainable accessibility to capital that is inexpensive, supervision of labour can closely be supervised, tightened control of the cose and the incentives based on quantitative targets.

The second named generic strategy comes in the form of differentiation that pertains the creation of the product that is innovative.  The innovativeness of the products that will be created would mean that there is a tendency of reduction in the price elasticity of demand and customers are likely to be brand loyal due to the fact that customers’ in any sense is willng to spend more provided that they get a good deal of the products and that customer’s are getting back their money’s worth. 

The last generic strategy to be previewed is the segmentation strategy wherein target markets are being filtered to come up with a selected and specialized markets.  Therefore, tailoring the marketing mix to these specialized market enables company to cater the needs of the selected target market which in turn can gain competitive advantage such that the demands of the target market are being meet.

Despite of the great contribution Porter has made, criticisms rose and challenges the use of generic strategies claiming they lack specificity, lack flexibility, and are limiting. For the critics, the application of generic strategies is like trying to get everything be perfectly fit into a peg but the bottom line is that generic strategies would not be a perfect fit.   (1993) have modified 's three strategies to describe three basic "value disciplines" that can create customer value and provide a competitive advantage. They are operational excellence, product innovation, and customer intimacy.

 

Main Part

 

HONDA

The redefinition of motor-cycle market in the United States is a classic case in corporate strategy.  The penetration of Honda in the United States market was being marketed under the slogan “You meet the nicest people on a Honda”.  Honda’s strategies succeeded because the strategy was an archetype of Japanese penetration on the Western Market (e.g. like that of Shiseido).  According to  (1975), the aggressive pursuit of domestic volume has established a low-cost in the expansion overseas.  On the contrary,(1984) asserted from his interview to Mr. Honda that “Mr Honda was especially confident of the 250 cc and 350 cc machines. The shape of the handlebar on these larger machines looked like the eyebrows of Buddha, which he felt was a strong selling point.”  Currently, the continuing commitment of Honda to make innovative automobile that not only provides consumers with reliable cars but also the manufacturing of automobiles that cuts the cost of fuel consumption by enhancing fuel efficiency.

 

Strategic scope and strategic strength

 

            Honda as being in an automobile manufacturing industry markets to the people especially into the world’s major busy cities where buying an automobile is almost a must to keep going and stay away from the fuzz of commuting in the morning rush and in the late afternoon traffic. At Honda even though they are not the number one in automobile industry, they provide means in which to give people an alternative by introducing cars that is fuel-efficient in response to the unpredictable rise of fuel consumption. 

 

The heart of Honda’s strategic strength is the capabilities to produce innovative yet simple, low-cost products.  Honda’s competitive advantage over the rest of automotive manufacturers is not the flashy design of automobiles but lies in the strategic differentiation strategy being employed by Honda especially in the quest of developing new innovative means to enhance fuel efficiency without the extra cost.

 

 

Cost leadership strategy

 

Honda as being founded by Japanese, the value for diversity is prevalent.  Mirrored from the core of Honda’s philosophy is the principle or respect for the individual with attached components of trust, initiative and equality that guides Honda in all of its business operations.  Accordingly,  says, "Action without philosophy is a lethal weapon; philosophy without action is worthless."  Evidence from case studies also supports the view that firms of different national origins will tend to pursue different competitive strategies (1985;  1982). This may reflect different organizational cultures ( 1980; ,  and  1966), or alternatively, the formulation of competitive strategy in response to environmental conditions in the domestic market, which are then carried over to foreign markets.  In Honda the recognition of the need to embrace diversity as having a diverse workforce, diverse dealer body and diverse team of suppliers proves to be as one of their competitive advantage.  In the dealer aspect, Honda continues to enhance the number of minority-owned dealers via the dealer development programs.  Even though minority-owned dealers are considered to be a small time dealings, but in Honda they believe in the power of small time dealings making it big in the future that might as well spells profitability to Honda.  In line to the enhancing of the number of minority-owned dealers, Honda establishes the American Honda Dealer Investment program aims in lowering financial barriers for qualified dealer candidates.

 

Differentiation strategy

The differentiation strategy is not at all easy to maintain since the expenditure of huge amount of money and resources should be pulled together to make the differentiation strategy to be effective.  Among the factors that constributes to the effectiveness of differentiation strategy are design, brand image, reputation, technology, product features, networks and differentiated customer service that can barely be imitated.

At Honda they are very particular in inventing automobiles that is not harmful to the environment as part of their goal in making environmentally friendly products and Honda is being characterized by its simplicity that is evident as the brand image Honda wanted to project in the market.  Several milestones and recognition has been awarded to Honda in terms of the organization’s promotion of protecting the environment.  To name a few recognition that Honda received as being environment friendly are, the introduction of the first car to pass the emissions requirement of the Clean Air Act without a catalyst (CVCC Civic model), development of the first fuel cell electric vehicle in the world, the first gasoline-powered car sold in California to meet the Super-Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle standard, Named the cleanest internal-combustion vehicle on earth by the EPA, the development of a the car Civic GX that runs entirely on natural gas so it is therefore pollution free vehicle, and the certification from the international environment management standards ( 14001) to all major Honda plants worldwide.

            The mandate by Mr. Honda “Do Not Imitate" is a challenge being given especially to the Resource and Development to constantly challenge themselves in seeking out for new initiatives and to remain as front runners in innovation.  In 2001, Tochigi R&D center was opened as the world’s first indoor all-weather facility.  Consequently in 2003, an Automotive Safety Research Facility featuring seven advanced safety testing laboratories.  Proving to the world of the commitment of Honda to quest for innovations that is a strong and valuable competitive advantage they have engulf in the organization.

 

Segmentation strategy

Honda’s realization of the full use of segmentation and involved the creation of a distinctive distribution network and the differentiated products and services Honda has been offering.  The target market of Honda is the mass-market model such that they can exhibit its greatest impact on clean air and fuel economy.  The Power of Dreams embodied by Honda envisions the development of vehicles for the future while improving the existing technologies.  The introduction of continued advancement of internal combustion engine technology and new generation of gasoline engines would provide the world with extremely low emission levels and increased fuel efficiency.

Conclusion

The focus of Honda is in the generic strategies of differentiation and cost leadership strategies.  With great emphasis on the differentiation strategy, has equipped Honda strong points in what the future has yet to unfold.  The anticipation of the future will enable them to be very potentially potent to be emerging as the number one automotive choice in the world since their continuing efforts in innovating cars that is fuel efficient yet environment friendly.  Despite in the argument of  (1980) saying that cost leadership and differentiation are such fundamentally contradictory strategies, requiring such different sets of resources, that any firm attempting to combine them would wind up "stuck-in-the-middle" and fail to enjoy superior performance.  However, in support of the generic strategies being employed in Honda, (1988) argued that sustainable competitive advantage rests on the successful combination of these two strategies.

 

 

 

NIKE

 

 

Who in the world did not hear anything about Nike?  Nike as a very prominent brand in the shoe industry with a check mark as its trademark had started its operation 33 years ago that is founded by , the legendary University of Oregon track & field coach, and , a University of Oregon business student and middle-distance runner under .  Nike caters primarily to the athletes worldwide whose mission has always been to provide a competitive edge, to help athletes perform better climbing the inside the athletic mind, feeling every beat of the athletic heart, flexes, bends, twist and torque every inch of athletic sinew and muscle. It's not easy, but it's natural for us. We're athletes. From the mission statement of Nike, the enduring commitment to athletes entails a mission to bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.  Similarly  quoted “if you have a body, you are an athlete.  Moreover, Nike’s total revenue for fiscal year 2005 reported an amount of $13.7 billion as their net revenue, a 12 percent increase from the fiscal year 2004.

 
Strategic scope and strategic strength

 

            The strategic scope of Nike is to cater to every athlete and the aspiring athletes all over the world that will be characterized by innovative features from the shoes, to apparels and gears.  The market of Nike is very much diverse in nature yet the market is particularly promising such as the market is not only limited to athlete but the people from all walks of life who does exercise or just have fun in playing.

 

            The strategic strength of Nike is in the innovation they have been creating for the people especially for the athletes who wants something new to show off and sports enthusiast who have a fetish for wearing unbelievably innovated shoes.  Like for example, the product Nike Shox who has a distinct feature that is capable of shock absorption.

 

Cost leadership strategy

            Nike as being the number one footwear brand works with the top suppliers.  An issue that circulates in the contract factories of Nike has been pervasive and needs to look into. The disclosure of the contract manufacturing base opens for the prospect to a deeper level of collaboration with Nike’s stakeholders as a response to the working conditions in manufacturing industry and for the reason for the said disclosure is to enable brands sharing of information regarding about compliance performance and duplication efforts would be minimal.  Nike believed that the creation of mechanisms that enable corporate responsibility, in which Nike has been struggling, is when the forces of market enable corporate responsibility to occur in a widespread context.  In the corporate responsibility report (2005), Nike’s inability to gauge progress in the organizations goals necessitates them to established plans setting targets as key objectives for Nike team to pursue for this year (2006)

 

 

Differentiation strategy

 

Nike relies more on the differentiation strategy and presumably it is the strategy where they excel.  Versatility as the strength of Nike goes beyond its basic function of impact protection such that Nike can shape and tuned to cater the demands of athletes in a detailed manner.  Needless, to say Nike’s footwear are being customized to meet the standards of the athletes and the people in general.  Aside from the innovative features of their footwear, Nike’s apparel has had a share in the invention of innovative designs and high performance fabrics they have been using to produce their apparel products.  The FIT technologies regulates the management of temperature conditions and moisture to help athletes train and compete in any sort of conditions without affecting athlete’s performance.  Three FIT technologies are being used in Nike, the dri-fit, thermal fit and Nike sphere thermal.

 

            Behind every innovative invention are the brilliance of the man and woman in the research and development combined with state-of-the-art research facilities.  In Nike, researchers are being subdivided accordingly to its field of expertise: these are the biomechanics, the study of human movement and related forces; the physiology, study of the integration of body’s energy system and responses to environmental stresses; and sensory/perception, the evaluation of subjective product attributes.  All of the specialized fields take into account the possible sources of confounding factors such as gender, skill level, geography and age.  Given these considerations before taking into account the dynamics of invention, Nike has been considered the master of innovation in shoe industry.  It is amazing to note that the careful and meticulous attention to details enables Nike to produce innovative features in their products that sometimes just gets people in awe as to how they are able to come up with such products especially to athletes.

 

 

Segmentation strategy

 

            Nike has penetrated the market and was able to focus on the different facets of footwear.  In every stores and boutique, every Nike products are being sort out in the shelves according to it’s shall I say, function.  For example, the labeling of the shoes as being for basketball, tennis, cross-training or running, that enables customers to know exactly what they are looking for.  In the segmentation strategy, they have been very specific to their target market, whether for boys, girls, children, men and women. 

 

Conclusion

Nike’s total sales in the United States for the fiscal year 2004, accounted for 23 percent of total sales, whereas the non-U.S total sales accounted for approximately 13 percent, meaning, Nike may have done well in the United States market since Nike is from the United States and American people are fanatic with sports and has a high purchasing power.  Or perhaps, the reason lies in the defect in the cost leadership strategy which may have had affected Nike in terms of sale.  Price is out of contention in this matter, according to  (2000) found that price might be ignored as long as the product-customer fit is enhanced. U.S. firms have been found to place greater emphasis on product quality, and less on new product development, promotional expenditure or pricing in overseas markets (,  1987; 1983;  1983).

 

The reputation of Nike in the market is unquestionable.  Nike’s dominant generic strategy is in the differentiation strategy wherein the other two generic strategies may not be a prioritized strategy for Nike.  In support if Nike in the use of only one generic strategy, an experiment by  (1984) found that firms employing only one of 's generic strategies outperformed firms pursuing elements of more than one strategy

 

 

 

REFERENCES:

 

THESIS - CHAPTER 1

Chapter One

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

1. 1      BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 

 Environmental degradation concerns humanity and the other forms of life here on earth. Ironically, much of these are caused by humans. Modernization and urbanization have led to serious pollution. Industries, vehicles and the increase in population are majors factors that cause environmental degradation. Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) have decreased the ability of the atmosphere to filter ultraviolet radiation. Climatic changes become evident as major cities worldwide become primary contributors of solid waste. Water pollution increases as an estimated 1.5 billion people lack safe drinking water and at least five million deaths per year are due to waterborne diseases. Sadly, although 70 percent of the planet is covered with water, much of these have become dumping grounds of waste. Raw sewage, garbage and oil spills dilute the ocean, polluting even coastal waters affecting the marine as well as human life that depend on it.

Different concepts have been introduced to combat environmental degradation. Consequently, with the determination to reduce pollution, people have become aware that most pollutants are basically their needs and wants. For instance, cars provide convenience for transportation; factories produce products varying from food to clothing, which are either necessities or for leisure; and fertilizers and pesticides increase the quantity and quality of production of crops; yet all of them emit gases that contribute to air pollution.

Moreover, the depletion of natural resources has taken its toll on the fragile environment. Countries require vast resources for economic activities as the demand for supplies have become greater and more complicated. These supplies range from water to fuel, from sand to wood, from aluminium to steel and from plastics to synthetic materials. The processes of extracting resources to produce these products have increased land degradation, changed natural habitats and polluted once pristine waters. The earth’s ability to sustain life and economic activity is now threatened by the way man extracts, processes, transports and disposes off a vast flow of resources.

According to the journal Nature, the earth’s ecosystem services value at an estimate of $33 trillion a year (., 1999). This began to change the companies’ production methods and consequently, their marketing strategies. However, the number of new pro-environmental product introductions has raised concern among government officials and environmental groups. Products claiming to be safer for the environment have come under close scrutiny. Manufacturers using ambiguous terms such as biodegradable and recyclable may actually be misleading the public because everything eventually biodegrades; and recyclable means nothing for recycling can not be done in all areas. The overuse of terms like these have led to numerous attacks by government officials and pro-environmental groups on these supposedly environmentally-friendly corporations.

According to , these developments have led to consumer confusion.  Consumers are unsure of which claims to believe and which claims not to. Consumers who wish to make a difference in the environment have to become smarter shoppers and fully examine not only product claims, but also have to become knowledgeable about the bigger issues, such as the reputation of the companies who manufacture those products. Some companies have tried to hide poor environmental performance by advertising pro-environmental activities, such as donations to pro-environmental organizations, or by modifying their operations in only one country, while continuing to harm the planet by polluting other countries.

            Most people today believe that Green Marketing refers solely to the promotion of products with environmental characteristics. Phosphate Free, Recyclable, Refillable, Ozone Friendly, and Environment Friendly are terms being associated by consumers with Green Marketing. Generally, Green Marketing refers to ‘one that can be applied to consumer goods, industrial goods and even services. It incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification, changes to the production process and packaging as well as modifying advertisement.’  (1994), defined  green or environmental marketing as all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or, such that the satisfaction of these needs and wants occur with minimal detrimental impact on the natural environment. 

            While green marketing has taken the US and Europe by storm, consumers and marketers in Asia show few signs of jumping to the bandwagon. However, Japan is an exception, where eco-friendly slogans are celebrated on goods ranging from designer clothes and beer cans to gift wrapping in department stores. In other countries in Asia, environmental problems receive little attention as people concentrate more on economic development. Western ways have spread to Asia, changing old, environmentally sound traditions. The concepts of convenience and disposability — the very qualities which appeal to evolving consumer markets — have dangerous implications for the environment and its resources. (, 1991).

            In Southeast Asian nations and in the other less developed Asian countries, spreading green product information is difficult. Advertisements in television, radio and newspapers are quite expensive. Furthermore, environmental regulations are also less comprehensive than in developed countries and the general population has a lower level of awareness in relation to environmental issues (, 1996).

In developing countries like Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, the populace remains largely rural, poor and have minimal access to various media. Their consumers have less awareness on green goods, which lessens the capability to put pressure on retailers to carry environment-friendly products.

            On the other hand however, market development in Southeast Asian countries present a good opportunity for market growth, with a regional population of over 500 million people. Once the economy recovers, personal income will increase hence, market segment is likely to be receptive to green products.

            In the Philippines, based solely on observation of the laymen’s attitude towards the environment, one can say that the concern for the environment is not that extensive.  Recycling garbage is limited only to certain households and organizations.  It is common to see people throw their candy wrappers and cigarettes everywhere they please.  And come typhoon season, the torrential rains will unearth tons of trash stashed away by the urban populace during the previous months causing flash floods and flood-related diseases.

            With this mindset, it would be interesting then to investigate whether the average Filipino responds favorably or not to a company’s marketing campaign using the environment as its driving theme. 

 

1.2       STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This research is an attempt to find out if there is a relation between the  marketing campaign of The Body Shop which has an environmentally friendly slant and the Filipino consumer’s purchasing decision in buying Body Shop products. 

Specifically this study aims to determine:

a. )the demographic profiles of the respondents in terms of:

1)      Age

2)      Gender

3)      Status

4)      Income

5)      Educational Background

b.) the attitude of the respondents toward The Body Shop products;

c.) the respondents’ frequency of buying Body Shop products;

d.) the level of satisfaction of the respondents toward The Body Shop products;

e.) the level of awareness of respondents on environmental problems;

f.) the factors affecting the respondent’s purchasing decision;

g) the effect of The Body Shop market campaign on respondents.

 

1.3  CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

            In order to determine if there is a relation between the novelty of a product and the producer’s market campaign, the factors affecting consumer’s purchasing decision must be determined. According to  (2000), there are two factors affecting the consumer’s purchasing decisions : 1) the manufacturer’s reputation, and, 2) the product’s ingredients, packaging, and labelling.  The idea of environmentalism is usually related to the second factor, which has the following considerations; the danger and damage the product could contribute to the environment, the product’s energy consumption during its manufacturing process, the use and disposal of the product and the materials used in processing the product.  Figure 1 illustrates this framework which this study will use.

                       

Figure 1.  Conceptual Framework

 

Text Box:     Manufacturer’s Reputation

 

 

 


 

Text Box: Consumption of energy during manufacture, use and disposal

 

Text Box: Unnecessary waste of the product

 

Text Box: Damage of the product to the during manufacture, use, disposal

 

Text Box: Materials of the product derived from animals

 

Text Box: Unnecessary use or cruelty to animals

 

Text Box: Danger of the product to health of people and animals

 

Text Box: Product Ingredient, Packaging, Labelling

 

Oval:             Consumer’s                      
       Purchasing Decision
Rounded Rectangle: Environmentally Sound
Oval: Consumer’s Purchasing Decision

 

 

 

 

            The demography of respondents which includes the age, gender, status, income, and educational background would form the profile of the Body Shop customers.   The dependent variables would be the customer’s level of environmental awareness, their frequency of purchase of The Body Shop products, their level of satisfaction towards The Body Shop product they purchased, and their prevailing attitude towards the marketing campaign of The Body Shop.  The market reputation of The Body Shop, their marketing campaign, as well as their product’s ingredient, packaging and labelling would be treated as the independent variables.  This relationship is shown in Figure 2.

 

    Dependent Variables                                                        Independent Variables

Text Box: Frequency of Purchase
Text Box: Level of Satisfaction
Text Box: Attitude Towards the Marketing Campaign
Text Box: Level of Environmental Awareness
Oval: The Body Shop’s Marketing Campaign
 
The Body Shop’s Market Reputation
 
The Body Shop product’s ingredients, packaging and labeling
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


 

Figure 2.  The Independent and Dependent Variables of the Study

 

1.4  STATEMENT OF THE HYPOTHESES

1.                  Ho :     There is no significant relationship between the independent variables and the consumer’s frequency of buying The Body Shop products.

H1  :     There is a significant relationship between the independent variables and the consumer’s frequency of buying The Body Shop products.

2.         Ho:      There is no significant relationship between the independent variables and the level of satisfaction of respondents on The Body Shop products.

H1  :     These is a significant relationship between the independent variables and the level of satisfaction of respondents on The Body Shop products.

3.         Ho:      There is no significant relationship between the independent variables and the attitude of respondents towards the marketing campaign of The Body Shop.

H1  :     There is a significant relationship between the independent variables and the attitude of respondents towards the marketing campaign of The Body Shop.

4.         Ho:      There is no significant relationship between the level of environmental awareness of the respondent and respondent’s purchasing decision of a Body Shop product.

            H1  :     There is a significant relationship between the level of environmental awareness of the respondent and respondent’s purchasing decision of a Body Shop product.

5.         Ho:      There is no significant relationship between marketing campaign of The Body Shop and the respondent’s purchasing decision.

H1  :     There is a significant relationship between the marketing campaign of the Body Shop and the respondent’s purchasing decision.

 

 

 

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

            General Objective:

            To discover whether the environment-friendly marketing campaign of The Body Shop affects their customer’s purchasing decision. 

            Specific Objectives:

a.)    to collate the demographic profile of the respondents;

b.)    to ascertain the level of awareness of the respondents on environmental problems;

 b.) to establish the respondents’ frequency of buying The Body Shop products;

 c.) to determine the level of satisfaction of the respondents towards The Body              Shop products;

 d)  to illustrate the prevailing attitude of the respondents towards the marketing campaign of The Body Shop; and,

            e.) to investigate whether there is a relation between the level of environmental awareness of the respondent and the respondents’ purchasing decision of a Body Shop product.

            f.) to investigate whether there is a relation between the marketing campaign of The Body Shop and the respondents’ purchasing decision of a Body Shop product.

 

1.6       ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY

                        The following assumptions are posed to support this study:

            1)         Environmental problems continues to rise, though people are aware of

 environmental trends.

            2)         Due to prevailing economic conditions in the country, consumers

including  the respondents have lower purchasing capability on

The Body Shop products.

3)                  People are aware of kinds of The Body Shop products because of its

 marketing efforts.

4)                  Consumers have a positive attitude toward The Body Shop product so

 they will purchase more.

           

1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

            This study will discover if the environment-friendly campaign of The Body Shop is the key factor in the purchasing decision of its Filipino customers.  This study will try to show that The Body Shop’s use of the environment as the tagline in its marketing campaign is not an effective way of selling their products to their Filipino customers.  Specifically, the researcher would like to show that Filipino consumers do not regard the product’s being environment-friendly as their main reason for buying the products of The Body Shop.

            The study will focus only on the marketing campaign of The Body Shop. Since the store carries a complete line of beauty products, for this study’s purposes, only the shampoo line of The Body Shop will be used as the product to be studied.  The researcher finds it unwieldy and difficult to make a survey for each of the product lines of The Body Shop.  The researcher feels that shampoos are one of the more important items of purchase especially among Filipino women so the researcher has decided to use it for the study.  Also, since the prices of the products of The Body Shop are a bit steep compared to similar products in the market, the researcher has decided to limit the respondents to young professional women working in Makati, with ages ranging from 20-32 years old. Understandably, since The Body Shop is primarily a beauty product, the respondents of the study will primarily be Filipino women.

            Also, the researcher would also like to determine the level of awareness of the  respondents on environmental problems, to see if it affects the purchasing decision of its customers.

 

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Industry

In general, this study will furnish insights on how concerned the young, professional, Filipino women consumers are with regard to the issues involving the environment. Moreover, this study will help the beauty industry assess their marketing campaigns vis-a-vis the attitudes of their consumers towards such campaigns.  More specifically, this study will provide the industry with the profile of its core customers, specifically the customers’ attitude towards green marketing. This study could be a good indicator whether consumers expect firms to jump on the green-bandwagon or not.  It will serve as a benchmark for companies that want to improve their green marketing campaign as this study provides a framework for the environmental behaviour of consumers. As this study furnishes valuable information regarding the frequency of purchase, the attitude towards their marketing campaign, their level of satisfaction toward the products of The Body Shop and as a whole, the image of The Body Shop products to their young, professional, female consumers, this study would provide the company a better understanding of what goes on in the minds of its buyers when they purchase any of the company’s products.  In the long run, they could use this as data for their future marketing campaigns and product positionings.

 

Society

Few academic disciplines have integrated green issues into literature as in the field of marketing. As society becomes more concerned with the natural environment, businesses have begun to modify their behaviour in an attempt to address society's "new" concerns. Some businesses have been quick to accept concepts like environmental management systems and waste minimization, and have integrated environmental issues into all organizational activities.

This study would be significant to the society as it would provide information on the real nature of green marketing for consumers to better assess the  products on the market. Furthermore, it would inform the society regarding  environmental problems and encourage them to carry out solutions to these.

Academe

The study will be of significance to the academe as a reference for future studies on green marketing in the Philippines. The findings of the study will provide information on where consumer demands are heading. It will also provide insights about the subject to enhance classroom discussions in  various institutions.

           

1.9  DEFINITION OF TERMS

Green Marketing incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification, changes to the production process and packaging as well as modifying advertisement.

Green Products refers to products that are typically durable, non-toxic, and are made from recycled materials, or minimally packaged.

Environmental degradation refers to the destruction of environmental resources whether natural or man-made

Recycling means to pass again through a series of changes or treatments as a   process (as liquid body waste, glass, or cans) in order to regain material for human use.

Animal testing is the use of animals to test the effects of products in experiments, studies, etc.

Green Consumers are those customers who utilizes goods that are environment-            friendly and described as inconsistent, acting as a green consumer in one market, but not in  another, cuts across existing market segments, sophisticated in wants and needs.

Manufacturer refers to the company producing environmentally sound products and makes ‘green’ market campaign.

Environmental Preservation refers to the cost of measure to conserve the resources

Market Reputation is the identity of the a company e. g. as green marketer, e-retailer

Environmental Behaviour refers to the attitude of consumer pertaining to or favoring the environment.

Customer Satisfaction is the perception as to whether the organization has met customer requirements. However, It is widely recognised in the customer satisfaction field that customers’ perceptions do not always conform with reality.

Chapter Two

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

 

 

Foreign Literature

                        An increasing number of consumers have voiced their concerns for environmental deterioration. The environment is not what it used to be a hundred years ago. Because of careless activities by humans, the environment has been constantly and continuously corrupted. Specific causes for concern about the environment degradation due to varied technological and production processes, pollution of air and water, and endangerment and extinction of species critical to human sustenance and aesthetics, population explosion, resource depletion, over harvesting of natural resources and the general degradation of social environment due to impairments of the physical environment (, 1992; , 1992).

                        Consumers have had enough of these wrongful practices and hence, consumers are now actively seeking environmental performance in the products and services that communicate environmental responsibility and stewardship ( 1999). In major international markets, consumers are demanding that firms produce increasingly higher quality products and services that are consistent with societal and environmental values if they wish to remain competitive in global markets ( , 2000). Hence, consumers have become more discriminating...for green products and services ( 2001). A study shows that 66% of respondents have switched product brands in an effort to obtain more environmentally sound products (, 1995). The general public is concerned about the environment and that the majority of people see the integration of environment and economy as a win-win scenario ( 1996). As consumers demand more green products and services, corporations are finding the going green makes good business sense as well as good environmental sense ( , 1997). Stakeholders, such as suppliers, government agencies, and other strategic partners, as a result, become much more concerned with the corporation’s overall reputation when selecting firms to create alliances (, 1996).

                        Because of the new trend in green products and services, green marketing represents both a vast opportunity and a potential minefield to all kinds of businesses ( 1999). Companies worldwide have used green marketing to bolster market share. Green marketing is a global development – especially in industrialized countries. With growing consumer awareness throughout the world, green marketing ...will become a powerful force in society (, 1996).

                        As more and more consumers are realizing the magnitude of this movement, corporations are jumping on the green bandwagon for a variety of reasons such as 1) cost cutting via waste reduction and increasing efficiency of operations 2) stay ahead of increasingly tough environmental regulations and enforcement policies and 3) improve corporate image and public relation (, 1999). Stressed manufacturers who can produce substitute for existing products...are likely to succeed (, 1998).

                        There is a growing evidence that suggests that enhancing environmental performance is both socially responsible and rational and builds the corporations reputational advantage (, 1997). Further, there is a strong support that being a good environmental steward helps creates a reputational advantage that leads to enhance marketing and financial performance. Monsanto’s CEO  suggests that environmental sustainability, defined as the ability of a business to operate without degrading the future integrity of the natural  environment, is a core strategy designed to enhance long-term corporate performance (, 1997). Companies that treat environmental issues as bottom-line concerns will prosper in an era when consumers and governmental mandates will force them to comply with a clean and green ethics (  1996).

                        As companies become better environmental citizens, they have discovered that sound environmental policy makes them more profitable. If they pollute less, they are subject to less fines and waste less raw materials and by-products. If they use less packaging, they lower the cost of the product and boost its profitability. If they reduce the amount  of materials needed to make a product, the same result is achieved. The German manufacturer AEG boosted sales 30 percent in 1989 ( in six months) after it introduced a washing machine that used less detergent and energy ( 1996).

                        As the current trend goes to green, several interesting green marketing facts are worth to mention. First, the number of green products in the US more that doubled since the early 90’s ( , 1997) second, sales of these kinds of good in the US have tripled since 1991 and now exceed $100 billion each year (, 1998). Third, since 1996, green product introductions have grown from 8.9% to 10.0% in 1998 (, 1998). Fourth, in 1991, in Business magazine counted 11 green retailers in the US but five years later, at least 400 environmental product retailers with such names as Earth General and Ozone Brothers have established all over the nation...including counterparts on the World Wide Web (, 1998).

                        The United Nation’s Environmental Program has enlisted major multinational companies in improving environmental reporting. Industrial environmental reporting is seen as a long-term ongoing process

 

Local Literature

                        Since the start of the 1990s, more and more people are becoming aware of the spreading environmental degradation. And it seems that companies are now taking notice of society’s changing lifestyles. Firms such as Coca-Cola, Philips, and Body Shop are integrating environmental issues into their marketing strategies. Even the government is jumping on the bandwagon by making environment-friendly legislation, such as the Clean Air Act. In addition, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like Green Peace, PRIME (Private Sector for Managing the Environment), and Haribon are formed to do advocacy work... In the end, education is the key. Teachers and students realize that damage to the environment is irreversible. Now is the time to build up environment consciousness before it is too late. As one green marketing student remarked, “We just scratched the surface here…though we became more aware of the industries’ and businesses’ environmental responsibilities…we should have more hands-on experience.”

 (, October 2000)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Foreign Studies

 

Based on the Study of , Effects of Environmental Concern On Attitudes and Behavior of Female Cosmetics Buyers: An Exploratory Study, the factors influencing purchase of consumers  are brand name, minimal and disposable packaging, attractive packaging, non-animal testing, natural ingredients price, packaging with recycled content. The fact that attitudes seem to be changing in favour of the environment suggests that personal influences (beliefs and attitudes) play a big part in influencing consumer-purchasing behaviour. The majority of (Baruch College Female Students) BCFSs feel natural ingredients are safer than synthetic ingredients. 2)9 percent strongly agree, 33.1 percent somewhat agree, 32.4 percent are neutral, 2.1 percent somewhat disagree, and only .7 percent disagree when asked it they felt that natural ingredients were safer than chemical ingredients. However, as was seen in table 4.5, only .7 percent and 1.4 percent responded that they use natural ingredient cosmetic products -The Body Shop and Perscriptives. 18.6 percent reported using Revlon, a cosmetic line that is not traditionally natural but one that has discontinued animal testing, and has reduced packaging. 

            The numerous companies and firms that have acted with more environmentally responsible behaviour have reaped the benefits of increased profit and better public relations. With the implementation of governmental regulations, mandatory environmental measures have provided incentives for innovation and higher environmental performance. Government intervention in the marketplace through public purchasing can stimulate improvement and innovation, thus supporting

industry's competitive advantage. ()

Green marketing is both a different marketing concept than the traditional model and it is growing in importance on a global scale. Businesses must be aware that in implementing a green marketing policy the entire organisational structure must be involved in the process. Failures provided in the paper highlight problems that can occur when businesses do not implement an overall GM strategy. Businesses should continue to pursue sustainability and not be able to excuse themselves from acting by stating that market forces can do nothing to improve the environment.  () According to , "Only business has the resources of technology, finances and organisational competence to

implement the necessary changes.” ().

 

Local Studies

 

Given the new interest in developing "green consumer" markets, there is considerable potential to cultivate this young market through educating the consumers about the advantages of Non-Wood Forest Products NWFPs and their production. Training materials and informal education systems should be developed which will improve marketing skills and entrepreneurship of NWFP producers, including those of cooperatives. At the national level, government officials also need to have more familiarity with the market forces that affect communities, and policy-makers need an understanding of these basics in order to know which polices create a conducive business environment for sustainable exploitation of NWFPs. Workshops and seminars can help to target these groups. ()

 

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ON THE DIGITAL ARCHIVING AND RETRIEVAL OF WARRANT OF ARREST

 

 

 

 

Text Box: Creation 
Warrants of Arrest from all over the country
·         Acquisition and Collection Development
Text Box: Storage 
 
Preservation
 
Access
 
 
 


Figure 1:  Conceptual Framework on the Digital Archiving and Retrieval of Warrants of Arrest

 

                            

 

 

 

 

 

Input                                                              Process                                                        Output

Text Box:  
Digitalized System of Archiving and Retrieval of Warrants of Arrest


    

 

CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

            This chapter presents the conclusion and recommendations based on the SWOT analysis of the project.

 

Conclusion

            This process will immensely benefit the different law enforcement agencies in the country, specifically the Philippine National Police (PNP) and the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI).

Currently, the PNP is creating system called the Philippine National Police Crime Information System (PNPCIS) which is envisioned to be the main Crime Information System for the PNP.  The main objective of the creation is to provide a comprehensive database of all crime-related information from the operative units down to the police stations PNP-wide.

The PNPCIS will encompass a number of salient features and attributes; one of which is the development of effective and efficient data entry for the users in order to lessen and minimize the time consumed in encoding crime data, especially from the National Crime Reporting System (NCRS) Form.  The system concept covers the establishment and maintenance of comprehensive databases harmonized file structures of the different crime information system.  Moreover, the PNPCIS intends to eliminate the coded features of the existing National Police Crime Information System (NCIS) that leads to minimal output.  The system shall generate reliable, accurate and timely required statistical reports for decision-making, operative planning and crime control.

The proposed PNPCIS shall continue using the Databases of those existing crime information systems – such as the Firearms Information Management System (FIMS), Vehicle Information Management System (VIMS), Security Agencies and Guards Information System (SAGIS), and Wanted person Information System (WPIS) – so as not to rebuild it.  This will also be the realization of the database integration and reconciliation of the above-mentioned crime information systems.

As it is, the situation now is that the number of warrants of arrest could easily reach the hundreds in any given day.  These warrants of arrest arrive randomly from different regions in the country.         If a warrant of arrest is lost, it is hard to get a new one from the judge.  Even if the warrant of arrest is not lost, the current system demands that the warrant of arrest be printed, and certified by the court.  The biggest danger is that, due to the immense number of warrants of arrest, there is a possibility that the inadequate and minimal storage space in the EDP-MIS is not enough to keep all of them.  The current system of filing and storing the warrant of arrest has to be revolutionized since the technology is already available.  This would immensely improve the service of the Warrants Branch and cause more ease in the retrieval of such document.

            The digitalization of the archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest can translate into the following benefits:  easy retrieval of the WOA copy, easy serving of WOA, easy maintenance and organization of WOA filing, ease in usage, and ease in reproduction and printing.  Other plus factors include low operating and maintenance cost, continuous usage, the need for it is not seasonal, and the coverage is nationwide, benefiting different organizations in law enforcement. 

            Furthermore, the new system can process hundreds of warrants of arrest per day and won’t need many personnel to operate it.  There would be no expense in the maintenance of equipment since the contractor will take care of it.  Hopefully, the incidences of losing a WOA along the processing chain are minimized to a great deal.  Also, investigators who may need a WOA can easily locate the WOA requested and have a copy printed.

            However, there is also a possibility of the system bogging down since it is equipment dependent.  Moreover, a large initial cost of money is need in processing backlogged WOA’s.   It also needs specialized training skills to be able to be operated on, and since the equipment is programmed to serve warrants of arrest only, its uses for documentation is limited.

Also, there is always the threat of other new digitalization methods in archiving and the possibility of tampering of information in the WOA by unscrupulous people, that’s why checks and balances should be implemented. 

 

Recommendations

The researcher was able to accomplish the main purpose of this study, but there are still some areas that could be further improved on.

1.                  Even if this would take more time and effort and make some changes in the system, the researcher believes that this system would become more beneficial if it could also process other documents that is continuously being used by these law enforcement agencies.

2.                  The future researchers should find time to personally seek out other technologies and systems that can benefit the operations of the PNP at the administrative level.

3.                   The researcher also recommends that tampering of documents be discouraged and that safeguards be implemented before any occurrence of this will happen.

 

 

CHAPTER 4 - SWOT ANALYSIS

Chapter 4

SWOT ANALYSIS

 

            This chapter discusses the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to the digitalization of the archiving and retrieval of the warrants of arrest.

Strengths

  • Easy retrieval of the WOA copy
  • Easy serving of WOA
  • Easy maintenance and organization of WOA filing
  • Ease in usage
  • Ease in reproduction and printing
  • Can process hundreds of warrants of arrest per day
  • Does not need many personnel to operate it
  • No expense in maintenance of equipment since contractor will take care of it
  • Can process warrants of arrests nationwide
  • Incidences of losing a WOA along the processing chain are minimized to a great deal
  • Investigators who may need a WOA can easily locate the WOA requested and have a copy printed
  • Low operating and maintenance cost
  • Usage will be continuous and not seasonal
  • Coverage is nationwide, benefiting different organizations in law enforcement

Weaknesses

  • Possibility of bogging down since it is equipment dependent
  • Large initial equipment investment
  • Needs specialized training skills to operate
  • Equipment is now programmed to serve warrants of arrest only
  • Requires close coordination with the regular and special courts

Opportunities

  • National support units engaged in similar law enforcement activities can avail of the services of this project, like the NBI
  • Three hundred warrants of arrest can be served everyday
  • Can totally get rid of the backlog of unarchived warrants of arrests
  • Serves several government agencies (i.e. PNP, NBI, etc.)
  • Speedy investigation and arrest of suspects
  • Allotment of budget for the project

Threats

  • Advent of other new archiving technologies
  • Possibility of tampering of information in the WOA

CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

 

This chapter presents the description of the research method to be used, a description of the respondents, the instruments to be used, the procedures and statistical treatment utilized in analyzing the data that will be gathered.

 

Research Design

This study will use the descriptive-normative-survey approach.  The descriptive method involves the description, recording, analysis and interpretation of the prevailing conditions and the present nature of a certain group.  It will include the following processes: induction, analysis, classification, enumeration, measurement and assessment of the data. Survey refers to the gathering of data regarding current conditions. Normative is used to ascertain the normal or typical condition.  The survey will try to ascertain the effectiveness of the customer service offered by the website of a popular wireless cellular phone company.  Furthermore, the researcher will query the following respondents: the criminal investigators, who will be the major recipients of this study, on the current state and the major problems associated with the present system of archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest.

The procedure will include the general principles of gathering data and used published sources of statistics; sampling questionnaires; interviews; and content analysis of documentary and verbal material.  The researcher will present the current state of archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest in the PNP.  

 

Method Of Data Collection

            The primary source of the data will come from a researcher-made questionnaire which will be given to the respondents.  The survey will assess the current state of the archiving and retrieval system of warrants of arrest.  The survey will ask the respondents on the current state of the system and the problems and difficulties they meet.   The questionnaire would solicit information from the criminal investigators of the PNP.

            The secondary sources of data will come from brochures and product information from companies that can set up the digitalization of the system.  Moreover, studies and literature on digitalization of archiving and retrieval systems will help in giving ideas to the researcher. 

 

Sampling Design And Respondents

The general population for this study will be the criminal investigators  of the PNP.  . 

In determining the sample size of PNP criminal investigators, the Sloven’s formula shall be used:

 

 

 

 

n          =           N

                                            1 + Ne2

 

 

where:

           

                        n          –          is the size of the sample

                        N         –          is the size of the population, and

                        e          –          is the margin of error.

 

 

Statistical Treatment Of Data

 

After the questionnaires will be answered, the profile of the respondents will be taken, according to age, gender, educational background, civil status, and years of service in the PNP.  To be able to get a description of the profile of the responents, the data coming from each item mentioned above will be placed in tabular form with the indicated percentage as well as the frequency.  This will show the predominant characteristics of a criminal investigator in the PNP.    

The formulae that will be used in this study are:

 

1.       Sloven’s Formula – to determine the sample population.  The margin of error is 5%

 

2.       Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the responses to the questionnaire.

            n

% = -------- x 100        ;           n – number of responses

            N                                 N – total number of respondents

 

3.       Weighted Mean

 

            f1x1 + f2x2  + f3x3 + f4x4  + f5x5

x = ---------------------------------------------  ;

                        xt

where:            f – weight given to each response

                        x – number of responses

                                   xt – total number of responses

      

            The weighted mean scores for each item in the questionnaire will be determined.  

 

THESIS CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

            The researcher has found the following studies and literature as relevant to the system being proposed.

 

A. Related Literature

 

Foreign

The rapid growth in the creation and dissemination of digital objects by authors, publishers, corporations, governments, and even librarians, archivists, and museum curators, has emphasized the speed and ease of short-term dissemination with little regard for the long-term preservation of digital information. However, digital information is fragile in ways that differ from traditional technologies, such as paper or microfilm. It is more easily corrupted or altered without recognition. Digital storage media have shorter life spans, and digital information requires access technologies that are changing at an ever-increasing pace. Some types of information, such as multimedia, are so closely linked to the software and hardware technologies that they cannot be used outside these proprietary environments [ 1998]. Because of the speed of technological advances, the time frame in which we must consider archiving becomes much shorter. The time between manufacture and preservation is shrinking.

While there are traditions of stewardship and best practices that have become institutionalized in the print environment, many of these traditions are inadequate, inappropriate or not well known among the stakeholders in the digital environment. Originators are able to bypass the traditional publishing, dissemination, and announcement processes that are part of the traditional path from creation to archiving and preservation. Groups and individuals who did not previously consider themselves to be archivists are now being drawn into the role, either because of the infrastructure and intellectual property issues involved or because user groups are demanding it. Librarians and archivists who traditionally managed the life cycle of print information from creation to long-term preservation and archiving must now look to information managers from the computer-science tradition to support the development of a system of stewardship in the new digital environment. There is a need to identify new best practices that satisfy the requirements and are practical for the various stakeholder groups involved.

In an effort to advance the state of the art and practice of digital archiving, the International Council for Scientific and Technical Information (ICSTI), a community of scientific and technical information organizations that includes national libraries, research institutes, publishers, and bibliographic database producers, sponsored a study in March 1999 [Hodge 1999]. This study is the most recent in a series of efforts on the part of ICSTI to highlight the importance of digital archiving. The topic was first raised in the joint UNESCO/International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) Conference on Electronic Publishing in 1996. The topic was highlighted at the technical session of the June 1997 Annual ICSTI meeting and a working group was formed. The Electronic Publications Archive Working Group presented a white paper of the major issues in December 1998 [ 1998]. At its December 1998 meeting, the ICSTI Board approved the study on which this report is based. Based on common interest in this topic, [CENDI], an interagency working group of scientific and technical information managers in the U.S. federal government, cosponsored the study.

The project managers from the cutting-edge projects emphasized the importance of considering best practices for archiving at all stages of the information management life cycle. Acknowledging this important philosophy, the best practices identified by the study are presented in the framework of the information life cycle, creation, acquisition, cataloging/identification, storage, preservation and access.

Creation is the act of producing the information product. The producer may be a human author or originator, or a piece of equipment such as a sensing device, satellite, or laboratory instrument. Creation is viewed here in the broadest sense, as science is based increasingly on a variety of data types, products, and originators.  All project managers acknowledged that creation is where long-term archiving and preservation must start. Even in rigorously controlled situations, the digital information may be lost without the initial awareness on the part of the originator of the importance of archiving. Practices used when a digital object is created ultimately impact the ease with which the object can be digitally archived and preserved

 

In addition, there are several key practices involving the creator that are evolving within the archiving projects. First, the creator may be involved in assessing the long-term value of the information. In lieu of other assessment factors, the creator's estimate of the long-term value of the information may be a good indication of the value that will be placed on it by people within the same discipline or area of research in the future. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Digital Publications Preservation Steering Committee has suggested that the creator provide a preservation indicator in the document. This would not take the place of formal retention schedules, but it would provide an indication of the long-term value that the creator, as a practicing researcher, attaches to the document's contents.  Secondly, the preservation and archiving process is made more efficient when attention is paid to issues of consistency, format, standardization, and metadata description in the very beginning of the information life cycle. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory (, USA) recently announced guidelines for the creation of digital documents. Limits are placed on both the software that can be used and on the format and layout of the documents in order to make short and long-term information management easier.

Many project managers acknowledged that the best practice would be to create the metadata at the object-creation stage, or to create the metadata in stages, with the metadata provided at creation augmented by additional elements during the cataloging/identification stage. However, only in the case of data objects is the metadata routinely collected at the point of creation. Many of the datasets are created by measurement or monitoring instruments, and the metadata is supplied along with the data stream. This metadata may include location, instrument type, and other quality indicators concerning the context of the measurement. In some cases, this instrument-generated metadata is supplemented by information provided by the original researcher.

For smaller datasets and other objects such as documents and images, much of the metadata continues to be created by hand and after the fact. Metadata creation is not sufficiently incorporated into the tools for the creation of these objects to rely solely on the creation process. As standards groups and vendors move to incorporate XML (eXtensible Mark-up Language) and RDF (Resource Description Framework) architectures in their word-processing and database products, the creation of metadata as part of the origination of the object will be easier.

Acquisition and collection development is the stage in which the created object is "incorporated" physically or virtually into the archive. The object must be known to the archive administration. There are two main aspects to the acquisition of digital objects, collection policies and gathering procedures.  In most countries, the major difference in collection policies between formal print and electronic publications is the question of whether digital materials are included under current deposit legislation. Guidelines help to establish the boundaries in such an unregulated situation. It is also the case that there is just too much material that could be archived from the Internet, so guidelines are needed to tailor the general collection practices of the organization. The collection policies answer questions related to selecting what to archive, determining extent, archiving links, and refreshing site contents.

Storage is often treated as a passive stage in the life cycle, but storage media and formats have changed, with legacy information perhaps lost forever. Block sizes, tape sizes, tape drive mechanisms, and operating systems have changed over time. Most organizations that responded to the question about the periodicity of media migration anticipate a three- to five-year cycle.

The most common solution to this problem of changing storage media is migration to new storage systems. This is expensive, and there is always concern about the loss of data or problems with the quality when a transfer is made. Check algorithms are extremely important when this approach is used.

Preservation is the aspect of archival management that preserves the content as well as the look and feel of the digital object. While the study showed that there is no common agreement on the definition of long-term preservation, the time frame can be thought of as long enough to be concerned about changes in technology and changes in the user community. Depending on the particular technologies and subject disciplines involved, the project managers interviewed estimated the cycle for hardware/software migration at two to ten years.

New releases of databases, spreadsheets, and word processors can be expected at least every two to three years, with patches and minor updates released more often. While software vendors generally provide migration strategies or upward compatibility for some generations of their products, this may not be true beyond one or two generations. Migration is not guaranteed to work for all data types, and it becomes particularly unreliable if the information product has used sophisticated software features. There is generally no backward compatibility, and if backward compatability is possible, there is certainly loss of integrity in the result.

Plans are less rigorous for migrating to new hardware and applications software than for storage media. In order to guard against major hardware/software migration issues, the organizations try to procure mainstream commercial technologies. For example, both the American Chemical Society and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency purchased Oracle not only for its data management capabilities but for the company's longevity and ability to impact standards development. Unfortunately, this level of standardization and ease of migration is not as readily available among technologies used in specialized fields where niche systems are required because of the interfaces to instrumentation and the volume of data to be stored and manipulated.

Emulation, which encapsulates the behavior of the hardware/software with the object, is being considered as an alternative to migration. For example, a MS Word 2000 document would carry metadata information that indicates how to reconstruct the document and the MS Word 2000 software environment at the bit and byte level. An alternative to encapsulating the software with every instance of the data type is to create an emulation registry that uniquely identifies the hardware and software environments and provides information on how to recreate the environment in order to preserve the use of the digital object. [ 1998;  1999]

At this time, there is no system in place to provide the extensive documentation and emulation information required for this approach to be operable, particularly to allow an archive to deal with the variety of older technologies. Most importantly, there is no policy that requires the manufacturers to deposit the emulation information. The best practice for the foreseeable future will be migration to new hardware and software platforms; emulation will begin to be used if and when the hardware and software industries begin to endorse it.

For purely electronic documents, PDF is the most prevalent format. This provides a replica of the Postscript format of the document, but relies upon proprietary encoding technologies. PDF is used both for formal publications and grey literature. The National Library of Sweden transforms dissertations that are received in formats other than PDF to PDF and HTML. While PDF is increasingly accepted, concerns remain for long-term preservation, and it may not be accepted as a legal depository format because of its proprietary nature.

Preserving the "look and feel" is difficult in the text environment, but it is even more difficult in the multimedia environment, where there is a tightly coupled interplay between software, hardware, and content. The U.S. Department of Defense DITT Project is developing models and software for the management of multimedia objects. Similarly, the University of California at San Diego has developed a model for object-based archiving that allows various levels and types of metadata with distributed storage of various data types. The UCSD work is funded by the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

A key preservation issue is the format in which the archival version should be stored. Transformation is the process of converting the native format to a standard format. On the whole, the projects reviewed favored storage in native formats. However, there are several examples of data transformation. AAS and ACS transform the incoming files into SGML-tagged ASCII format. The AAS believes that "The electronic master copy, if done well, is able to serve as the robust electronic archival copy. Such a well-tagged copy can be updated periodically, at very little cost, to take advantage of advances in both technology and standards. The content remains unchanged, but the public electronic version can be updated to remain compatible with the advances in browsers and other access technology." [ 1997]

The data community also provides some examples of data transformation. For example, the NASA Data Active Archive Centers (DAACs) transform incoming satellite and ground-monitoring information into standard Common Data Format. The U.K.'s National Digital Archive of Datasets (NDAD) transforms the native format into one of its own devising, since NDAD could not find an existing standard that dealt with all their metadata needs. These transformed formats are considered to be the archival versions, but the bit-wise copies are retained, so that someone can replicate what the center has done.

In some countries, there are intellectual property questions related to native versus transformed formats. According to , an author's rights are infringed if the original work is "distorted, mutilated or otherwise modified." After much discussion, the NLC decided that converting an electronic publication to a standard format to preserve the quality of the original and to ensure long-term access does not infringe on the author's right of integrity. However, this assumption has not been tested in court

The previous life-cycle functions that have been discussed are performed for the purpose of ensuring continuous access to the material in the archive. Successful practices must consider changes to access mechanisms, as well as rights management and security requirements over the long term.

One of the most difficult access issues for digital archiving involves rights management. What rights does the archive have? What rights do various user groups have? What rights have the owners retained? How will the access mechanism interact with the archive's metadata to ensure that these rights are managed properly? Rights management includes providing or restricting access as appropriate, and changing the access rights as the material's copyright and security level changes.

Security and version control also impact digital archiving.  raises many interesting questions concerning privacy and "stolen information," particularly since the Internet Archive policy is to archive all sites that are linked to one another in one long chain. [1997]. Similarly, there is concern among image archivists that images can be tampered with without the tampering being detected. Particularly in cases where conservation issues are at stake, it is important to have metadata to manage encryption, watermarks, digital signatures, etc. that can survive despite changes in the format and media on which the digital item is stored.

Local

             (1996) pointed out in a lecture that a systematic acquisition work begin with knowing what should be done and by whom.  It is evident that professional archivists are responsible for duties such as managing the acquisitions budget, determining policies and work procedures, and resolving difficult bibliographic problems.  She states further that the most routine tasks are usually left to the clerk and assistants.  It means that in whatever level, it is advantageous for the personnel to know and understand as much as possible about all acquisition tasks.

             (1994) affirms that technical services must be transformed through the innovativeness of its leaders.  This is so if archives want to become active agents of the electronic revolution with the responsibility of collecting information in all forms.  Her paper presented the past and present archival practices and visions of an electronic library equipment.  The working environments in the past demand a variety of challenges.  However, she emphasizes that knowledge of the basic concepts and process on technical services is still a must whether it is an electronic library, or a library in an information technology environment.  Despite the changes, the basic process of performing archival activities remains constant and what has changed is how the work is done.

             (1994) discussed the future of archiving and the needed leadership to cope with the developments in the field.  He recommends the following: 1.  To approach the age of the digital archival system, catalogers must have a grasp of the rules on cataloging files and other non-traditional media, and 2) learn to use microcomputers and explore its endless possibilities to improve procedures.

             (1993) stated in her study that the goals of nonprint materials must be consciously and systematically determined through an assessment of user needs. Its database must consist of the widest range of available learning resources and must be selected according to a profile of user needs.  Its retrieval system must reflect the objectives, interest learning and teaching styles and abilities of the school community and its users must be educated to make active use of media materials by making the responsibility to acquire, store, retrieve and disseminate information systematically.

            The study used the descriptive method of research with two sets of questionnaires as her instruments in gathering data.  The result of the survey indicated three essential findings: that there is a need to establish a media center responsible for the organization and management of audio visual resource in order to fulfill its vital role as partner in the school’s instructional program; that the utilization of newer media resource is not maximized due to lack of awareness by the faculty of their existence; and that there is an imperative need to organize the audiovisuals in the school for more effective and efficient use.  A union list of AV materials was urgently needed; and there is a need to formulate procedures and policies in the overall management of media or audiovisual resources in the library.

            (2001) pointed out that the Philippines employed a unique strategy in carrying out the work in audiovisual (AV) archiving. In the absence of an operational AV archives in the country, most of the activities of institutions with AV archive holdings such as the Philippine Information Agency, the UP Film Center, the Cultural Center of the Philippines, Mowelfund, etc., are informally being coordinated by a professional body composed of "archivists" working in the different institutions involved in archiving.

It should be noted though that during the early 1980’s, the Philippines had a national film archive that was fully operational in the real sense of the word. After the 1986 Edsa Revolution, the archive received the least priority and was transferred to the Censors Body. No archiving activity was carried out by this unit since then. The various tasks involved in AV archiving rested on the shoulders of related agencies, not by their own chose but by necessity required of their work. AV archiving activities were separately being undertaken. The turning point came when the Cultural Center of the Philippines, which wanted to organize a Lino Brocka Retrospective, discovered that many of the Brocka films, particularly those that were significant, were already destroyed. Some of the surviving prints were brought to the Philippine Information Agency for restoration. With no previous experience on cases of this nature, PIA had to turn to other agencies for materials that could be used as reference for the work. The UP Film Center, with its contacts with international organizations and as a recipient of several fellowship awards from UNESCO, provided PIA a copy of the International Federation of Film Archives (FIAF) Manual. This was the first inter-institutional contact in the country that proved to be significant as it eventually led to a formal partnership among the archivists from these institutions in what was to become later as the Society of Film Archivists (SOFIA).

The Society of Film Archivists (SOFIA) was formally organized in July, 1993 out of need and in compliance with the recommendation of the ASEAN Planning Workshop Meeting on Film Retrieval, Restoration and Archiving, which the Philippines organized in February, 1996. SOFIA’s membership is made up of individual AV archivists working in cultural organizations, information agencies, broadcasting and academic institutions, film production companies, and film critics.

The role of SOFIA in the development of the AV archiving profession in the country is one that has been evolving over time. At the beginning, SOFIA served as a venue for exchanging knowledge and skills. As such, the kinds of projects undertaken during this stage were mostly training programs. Later, SOFIA became an informal coordinating body for activities undertaken by the different institutions involved in archiving. These projects were implemented by institutions as part of their in-house programs and according to what these institutions can do best. This enabled the different institutions to avoid duplication of efforts and therefore saved on scarce national resources. Presently, SOFIA’s role has evolved into that of a mobilizer and an advocate for the setting up of a central body that would formally be recognized by the government and supported by the public sector.

The effectiveness of this model in the Philippines could be better appreciated in the context of the prevailing situation operating at the time SOFIA was born and the commitment of the members to pursue the work. Prevailing conditions that were considered important that helped bring about the results were the following: a) a clear vision of what was needed.

These involved knowing where we were, where we want to go and how to get there; b) the emergence of a Steering Group at the initial stage. This role was assumed by the Philippine Information Agency. Through its work requirement and involvement in ASEAN, PIA initiated projects on the national and regional levels that brought critical agencies together, identified local partners such as the Cultural Center of the Philippines, the UP Film Center, etc., to assist in implementing the program, and identify succeeding steps to build on previous accomplishments; c) empowerment of the identified partners. This involved getting the partners committed to assume the responsibility of carrying out the work when the agencies involved in AV archiving decided to bond together through SOFIA and initiated and sustained programs and projects for AV archiving as a group or individually in coordination with each other, empowerment of the identified partners had set in; and d) utilization of advocacy techniques that were found effective. Apart from the traditional tools for promotion such as the media, SOFIA used techniques such as requesting the President of the Republic of the Philippines to issue an Executive Order declaring a week in a year as AV Archiving Week, among others. Organizing international conferences also helped generate interest on the issues.

This is an overview of the criminal procedure in the Philippines.  The sources of procedural criminal law were the constitution, the revised penal code of 1930, the New Rules of Court of 1964, special laws, and certain presidential orders and letters of instruction. These governed the pleading, practice, and procedure of all courts as well as admission to the practice of law. All had the force and effect of law.

The rights of the accused under Philippine law are guaranteed under Article 3 of the 1987 constitution and include the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, the right to enjoy due process under the law, and the right to a speedy, public trial. Those accused must be informed of the charges against them and must be given access to competent, independent counsel, and the opportunity to post bail, except in instances where there is strong evidence that the crime could result in the maximum punishment of life imprisonment. Habeas corpus protection is extended to all except in cases of invasion or rebellion. During a trial, the accused are entitled to be present at every proceeding, to compel witnesses, to testify and cross-examine them and to testify or be exempt as a witness. Finally, all are guaranteed freedom from double jeopardy and, if convicted, the right to appeal.

Criminal action can be initiated either by a complaint--a sworn statement by the offended party, a witness, or a police officer--or by "information." Information consists of a written accusation filed with the court by a prosecutor, known as a fiscal at the provincial levels of government and below. No information can be filed unless investigation by a judge, fiscal, or state prosecutor establishes a prima facie case. Warrant for arrest is issued by a judge. Warrantless arrest by a police officer can be made legally only under extraordinary circumstances. Former President Aquino immediately discontinued Marcos-era practices of presidentially ordered searches and arrests without judicial process and prolonged "preventative detention actions."

Trial procedure consists of arraignment, trial, and the court's judgment and sentencing. The accused must be arraigned in the court where the complaint or information is filed. A defendant must be present to plead to the charge, except in certain minor cases where a lawyer can appear for him or her. All offenses are bailable, save the most serious cases when strong evidence of guilt exists. If a defendant has no lawyer, the court is required to supply one. Prosecution is carried out by the state prosecutor or provincial fiscal, who exercises broad discretion in screening cases and affixing charges. No jury is employed; the judge determines all questions of law and fact and passes sentence. A written sentence must be read to the court. Afterward, either party may appeal. ()

This is the overview of law enforcement in the Philippines.  Until the mid-1970s, when a major restructuring of the nation's police system was undertaken, the Philippine Constabulary alone was responsible for law enforcement on a national level. Independent city and municipal police forces took charge of maintaining peace and order on a local level, calling on the constabulary for aid when the need arose. The National Police Commission, established in 1966 to improve the professionalism and training of local police, had loose supervisory authority over the police. It was widely accepted, however, that this system had several serious defects. Most noteworthy were jurisdictional limitations, lack of uniformity and coordination, disputes between police forces, and partisan political involvement in police employment, appointments, assignments, and promotions. Local political bosses routinely used police as private armies, protecting their personal interests and intimidating political opponents.

In order to correct such deficiencies, the 1973 constitution provided for the integration of public safety forces. Several presidential decrees were subsequently issued, integrating the police, fire, and jail services in the nation's more than 1,500 cities and municipalities. On August 8, 1975, Presidential Decree 765 officially established the joint command structure of the Philippine Constabulary and Integrated National Police. The constabulary, which had a well-developed nationwide command and staff structure, was given the task of organizing the integration. The chief of the Philippine Constabulary served jointly as the director general of the Integrated National Police. As constabulary commander, he reported through the military chain of command, and as head of the Integrated National Police, he reported directly to the minister (later secretary) of national defense. The National Police Commission was transferred to the Ministry (later Department) of National Defense, retaining its oversight responsibilities but turning over authority for training and other matters to the Philippine Constabulary and Integrated National Police.

The Integrated National Police was assigned responsibility for public safety, protection of lives and property, enforcement of laws, and maintenance of peace and order throughout the nation. To carry out these responsibilities, it was given powers "to prevent crimes, effect the arrest of criminal offenders and provide for their detention and rehabilitation, prevent and control fires, investigate the commission of all crimes and offenses, bring the offenders to justice, and take all necessary steps to ensure public safety." In practice, the Philippine Constabulary retained responsibility for dealing with serious crimes or cases involving jurisdictions far separated from one another, and the Integrated National Police took charge of less serious crimes and local traffic, crime prevention, and public safety.

The Integrated National Police's organization paralleled that of the constabulary. The thirteen Philippine Constabulary regional command headquarters were the nuclei for the Integrated National Police's regional commands. Likewise, the constabulary's seventy-three provincial commanders, in their capacity as provincial police superintendents, had operational control of Integrated National Police forces in their respective provinces. Provinces were further subdivided into 147 police districts, stations, and substations. The constabulary was responsible for patrolling remote rural areas. In Metro Manila's four cities and thirteen municipalities, the Integrated National Police's Metropolitan Police Force shared the headquarters of the constabulary's Capital Command. The commanding general of the Capital Command was also the director of the Integrated National Police's Metropolitan Police Force and directed the operations of the capital's four police and fire districts.

As of 1985, the Integrated National Police numbered some 60,000 people, a marked increase over the 1980 figure of 51,000. Approximately 10 percent of these staff were fire and prison officials, and the remainder were police. The Philippine National Police Academy provided training for Integrated National Police officer cadets. Established under the Integrated National Police's Training Command in 1978, the academy offered a bachelor of science degree in public safety following a two-year course of study. Admission to the school was highly competitive.

Integrated National Police was the subject of some criticism, and the repeated object of reform. Police were accused of involvement in illegal activities, violent acts and abuse. Charges of corruption were frequent. To correct the Integrated National Police's image problem, the government sponsored programs to identify and punish police offenders, and training designed to raise their standard of appearance, conduct, and performance.

Dramatic changes were planned for the police in 1991. The newly formed Philippine National Police was to be a strictly civilian organization, removed from the armed forces and placed under a new civilian department known as the Department of the Interior and Local Government.

Local police forces were supported at the national level by the National Bureau of Investigation. As an agency of the Department of Justice, the National Bureau of Investigation was authorized to "investigate, on its own initiative and in the public interest, crimes and other offenses against the laws of the Philippines; to help whenever officially requested, investigate or detect crimes or other offenses; (and) to act as a national clearing house of criminal records and other information." In addition, the bureau maintained a scientific crime laboratory and provided technical assistance on request to the police and constabulary.

Local officials also played a role in law enforcement. By presidential decree, the justice system in the barangays empowered village leaders to handle petty and less serious crimes. The intent of the program was to reinforce the authority of local officials and to reduce the workload on already overtaxed Philippine law enforcement agencies.  ()

 

B.  Studies

 

Foreign

Two studies were concerned with the needs of data creators and the responsibility for archiving of such data. In the traditional area of publishing it is quite clear where the responsibility for maintaining an archive of published information lies: publishers do not regard it as residing with them, and if libraries wish to preserve the books or journals they have bought, then it is their responsibility to do so. In electronic publishing the issues are not nearly as clear. In many cases, for example, libraries do not hold the database that resides with the publisher.  (1997) recommended that a national body be established in the UK to coordinate such archiving and that it should be funded from the public sector, with an extension of legal deposit legislation to cover electronic publications.  As far as unpublished data are concerned, universities and the funding agencies which support scholarly research are major sponsors of digital resource creation and, therefore, have a responsibility for ensuring that the research they help to create is preserved on a long-term basis.  (1998) sought to establish how much of these digital resources were being created, as well as the level of provision which is being made for their preservation. The report also considered what the future needs of  these bodies were with regard to digital preservation

A further study (, 1998) produced a strategic policy

framework, which examined how different organizations are approaching the key stages in the life-cycle of digital resources, from creation, through access to preservation. Finally, the question of post-hoc rescue or `digital archaeology' was

addressed ( 1998). Some data appear to be inaccessible due to the obsolescence of the hardware or software required to read them. The study examined approaches to accessing digital materials where the media have become damaged, through disaster or age, or where the hardware or software is either no longer available or unknown. It illustrated some methods of recovery, showing that most data can be rescued, if there is enough time and money, but emphasizing that the value of the data must be weighed against the cost of recovery.

A clear message that emerged from the studies was that a great deal of money can be wasted if digitization projects are undertaken without due regard to the long-term preservation of the digital files. It is relatively easy to produce a digital version of a book, manuscript or museum object. Unfortunately it is also easy to do so in such a way that either the long-term preservation of the file becomes expensive, because of the way it was created, or with the result that the work will have to be repeated because no plan was in place for archiving the file.

But digital preservation is about much more than digitizing to facilitate the preservation of items which were originally produced in a different medium. The preservation of digital materials which were created in the digital domain provides an even greater challenge, since there is no opportunity to return to the non-digital original. As the world moves increasingly towards dealing with this `born-digital' information, the potentially devastating impact on the future of scholarship increases, and so must the sense of duty to solve these problems

             (1989) determined the impact of computer assisted cataloging on the archival staff and their performance in the 21 Illinois community agencies identified as having computer assisted cataloging. The focus of the study was on the volume of services, quality of catalog cards, and cataloging functions, attitudes toward the job, personnel changes, and environmental changes since the advent of computer-assisted cataloging.  The major findings of the study are in two categories: duties and perceptions. The duties included increased interarchival loan transactions, fewer workshops, a decrease in turn-around time for cataloging and card production, a decrease in original cataloging, and a decrease in volume of services since the advent of computer assisted cataloging. 

The perceptions included the cataloger’s feelings that computer assisted cataloging was an improvement over previous cataloging procedures and more positive than negative attitudes were expressed toward the job.  The only environmental change consisted of the addition of furniture. 

            Once, paper-based technologies ruled; to date, libraries actively promoted electronic information tools whether simply via online catalogues or through the more sophisticated CD-ROMs or international networks.  With these electronic information tools, archivists could choose whether they would subscribe to an expensive journal or provide access to it via the equivalent fulltext database online, or just possibly charge the requestor for the service.

             (1996) determined the importance of computers in providing access to information resources both within and without library walls,  He stated that the new technology is hard to resist, but it is essential that the needs if the  ordinary clients continue to be met by providing access to the technology and resources in a central, public location, and making available the necessary instruction to use these media just as readers assistance has been providing for traditional print based media in the past.  Furthermore, he emphasized that services provided should be examined closely and that policy decisions be taken to ensure appropriate dissemination of information resources and the ability to pay.  Facilitating access to information, according to him, is of greatest importance.

           

Local

            (1998) conducted a study on the development, organization, use and maintenance of nonbook resources in the Mapua Institute of Technology Library.  The researcher utilized the descriptive method.  Two sets of questionnaires were utilized, one for the 13 regular full time librarians and another for the 53 regular full time faculty members. To supplement the information drawn out from the questionnaires, personal interviews of the respondents and other librarians were conducted and content or documentary analysis was made.

            The study found out that there was no written procedural manual for nonbook materials in the Mapua Institute of Technology library with regard to acquisition, organization, use and maintenance.  The study noted that one hundred percent of the respondents recommended the development of the procedural manual, 

             (1991) determined how well the UPLB library card catalog was performing, what its deficiencies are, and how well its level of effectiveness can be increased.  It was found out that the subject catalog was more useful in locating materials than the Author/Title catalogs.   

 (1978) conducted an experimental study on the effectiveness of the National Union catalog and the Marcfiche as searching tools in the cataloging section of the Rizal library of the Ateneo de Manila University.  The results of the study indicated that there was no significant difference in the time spent in searching the sample in either catalog, but there was a significant difference in the number of successful searcher by searching at the Marcfiche.

The experimental study showed that successful search in the NUC (National Union Catalog) was inhibited by: 1) title entries, 2) corporate authors, 3) foreign names of author entries, 4) see reference entries that are overlooked in searching because of their typography, and 5) the exhausting manipulation of the series of book catalogs.

On the other hand, successful search in the Marcfiche was inhibited by factors such as: 1) its title index being in sequential arrangement, and 2) its being  a new searching tool so that searchers have to be more familiar with its many features to be able to use it at the optimum level.  However, the number of successful searches in Marcfiche was affected by the independent variables such as: 1) its multiple access points through the multiple indexes, 2) ease in accessing the title index since the title of a work is easier to determine than its main entry, and 3) its being in Marcfiche form, makes easier to handle or manipulate them than a searching tool in book form and in a series of volumes like the NUC.

 (1993) conducted a study on the state of selection process or weeding in selected archives in Metro Manila.  The study sought to find out the nature and extent of weeding, the existence of deselection policies, the deselection methods and criteria used, the methods of disposing the discarded stock and the problems encountered by the archivists in implementing the weeding process. 

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study the author recommended the following: 1) implement continuous and regular weeding process at least once every two years; 2) emphasize weeding of less-used materials by transferring/relocating them in a stock room rather totally discard them in as much as all are related to the curriculum; 3) for archives with no weeding policies yet, formulate sound guidelines and perform deselection  process in the light of these policies, and 4) to solve the deselection problems encountered by the archivists, awareness of the importance of weeding through lectures or seminars should be disseminated to the archivists.

THESIS CHAPTER 1

Chapter 1

 

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

 

 

Introduction

The beginning of this millennium is being characterized by an upheaval of some sort which is quietly affecting the lives of many people worldwide.  These changes are aptly termed as the digital revolution. In the future, technology experts say that all the information and entertainment in digital form will come from a screen.  Throughout the developed world, projects are under way to create “virtual libraries”, which contain digital representations of museum objects, works of art, texts and moving images. Such developments are undoubtedly bringing to a far wider audience items and texts that are currently accessible to a relative few.

The initiatives have continued and have built upon the massive investment made in recent years by public and private sector organizations in the creation and acquisition of digital resources, to the extent that such resources now form a significant and growing part of man’s cultural and intellectual heritage. The opportunities presented by digital technology have also come to be seen by some as a universal remedy, as not just a means of providing access to materials that they believe have lain unused and unusable in libraries, archives and museums all over the world, but also as a means of preserving them for ever. However, there is already evidence that electronic information created or acquired with public money is being lost through neglect or through a lack of awareness of the need to take active steps to ensure its preservation.

Traditional library and archive materials like paper, vellum, and even papyrus as well as the materials used to bind them together, like cloth and leather, present many preservation problems, with which conservators and preservation administrators have been wrestling for years, but as far as paper-based information resources are concerned the solutions are generally well understood. As today’s information moves towards greater dependence on electronic sources of information, preservation problems of a completely different order of magnitude and a completely different type are being encountered. The problems of brittle paper and decaying bindings are serious ones, but, nevertheless, the time-scale for most papers becoming brittle or their bindings degrading, if they are stored in reasonable conditions, is at least a good number of decades, if not several centuries. However, with electronic information the time-scale is very much shorter. 

The main problem is that of obsolescence. Today’s systems change rapidly and there is no guarantee that today's software will be readable by tomorrow's hardware. There has been concern about digital preservation in different information communities worldwide, for some years now, but a serious and active interest is a relatively recent phenomenon.

The Philippine National Police (PNP) also stores a lot of information which needs to be available immediately.  This information should also be preserved for future use.  Among the myriad information being processed in the PNP, the warrant of arrest is one item that needs to be available at any given time, and that has to be stored just in case it needs to be used during the court hearings.

This study proposes a digital archiving and retrieval system for the warrant of arrest.  This is in keeping with the technology that is already available in the market. Moreover, this system will help streamline the retrieval system for warrants of arrest, which have to be available when they are needed.

 

Background of the Study

            There are just too many hassles in the present set-up of getting the warrant of arrest.  This is due primarily to the inadequate storage system and the lack of storage space in the Office of Investigation and the Warrant Branch.  There have been many cases wherein the warrant of arrest was misplaced and could not be found.  This adds more hassles to the investigator who again has to get the warrant of arrest from the judge.  Moreover, the retrieval system is too cumbersome, and there have been many incidences of lost warrants of arrest, due mainly to the poor system.

            The number and reach of the warrants of arrest is nationwide and could easily reach the hundreds in any given day.  These warrants of arrest arrive randomly from different regions in the country.          If a warrant of arrest is lost, it is hard to get a new one from the judge.  Even if the warrant of arrest is not lost, the current system demands that the warrant of arrest be printed, and certified by the court.  The biggest danger is that, due to the immense number of warrants of arrest, there is a possibility that the inadequate and minimal storage space in the Warrants Branch is not enough to keep all of them.  In the current system, the investigator gets a summary of information regarding the person the warrant is being served to.

            The current system of filing and storing the warrant of arrest has to be revolutionized since the technology is already available.  This would immensely improve the service of the Warrants Branch and cause more ease in the retrieval of such document.

 

Conceptual Framework

Within the sciences, there are a variety of digital-archiving projects that are at the operational or pilot stage. A review of the cutting-edge projects shows the beginning of a body of best practices for digital archiving across the stages of the information life cycle.  Standards for creating digital objects and metadata description that specifically address archiving issues are being developed at the organization and discipline levels. Regardless of whether acquisition is done by human selection or automated gathering software, there is a growing body of guidelines to support questions of what to select, the extent of the digital work, the archiving of related links, and refreshing the contents of sites.

Standards for cataloging and persistent, unique identification are important in order to make the material known to the archive administration. A variety of metadata formats, content rules, and identification schemes are currently in use, with an emphasis on crosswalks to support interoperability, while standardizing as much as possible. Issues of storage and preservation (maintaining the look and feel of the content) are closely linked to the continuous development of new technologies. Current practice is to migrate from one storage medium, hardware configuration, and software format to the next. This is an arduous and expensive process that may be eliminated if emulation strategies are developed among standards groups and hardware and software manufacturers. Access mechanisms, being hardware and software based, have their own migration issues. In addition, there are concerns about rights management, security, and version control at the access and re-use stage of the life cycle.   While there are still many issues to be resolved and technology continues to develop apace, there are hopeful signs that the early adopters in the area of digital archiving are providing lessons-learned that can be adopted by others in the stakeholder communities. Through the collaborative efforts of the various stakeholder groups, creators, librarians, archivists, funding sources, and publishers, and the involvement of information managers, a new tradition of stewardship will be developed to ensure the preservation of and continued access to our scientific and technological heritage.

            Based on that discussion, the researcher has formulated the conceptual framework for this study, wherein the major processes in the digitalization of the archiving and retrieval system are being outlined.  In the Input stage, the Creation and the Acquisition and Collection Development are prioritized.  In the Process Stage, three important steps are outlined: storage, preservation and access.   After these five steps are carefully outlined, along with the cost of the project as well as the infrastructure needed, the researcher aims to set-up a digitalized archiving and retrieval system for warrants of arrest.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 
Statement of the Problem

            This study proposes the digitalization of the archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest.  To be able to address the changes to be made in the current system, the researcher would also like to find out the following:

1.       What is the profile of a criminal investigator in the PNP, according to

1.1  age,

1.2  gender,

1.3  educational background,

1.4  civil status, and

1.5  years of service in the PNP?

2.       What is the current system in the archiving and retrieval of the warrant of arrest?

3.       What are the most common problems associated with the

a)     archiving, and the

b)     retrieval of warrants of arrest?

4.       What would be the cost of the digitalization of the archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest? 

5.       What infrastructure is needed in the digitalization of the archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest? 

 

Scope and Delimitation

            This study will focus primarily on the setting up of a system which allows the digital archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest.  The study will be limited to the Office of Investigation of the PNP.  Departments in the PNP which will be affected in the are the Warrant Branch, the EDP-MIS and the CIDG.  The respondents of the study will be limited to criminal investigators, who are usually the ones who request for warrants of arres.

 

Significance of the Study

            The main recipient of this study would be the officers of the PNP as well as the clients who transact with the organization.  With a digitalized system of archiving and retrieval of warrants of arrest, there is expected ease of retrieval of warrants of arrest.  This reduces hassles that usually prop up in the current system. 

            Other main recipients of this study would be the justice system, for court cases can be tried immediately since the police can apprehend crime suspects before these suspects do more harm the public.

            Finally, this system can serve as a model for other related services, not necessarily related to police work, where the information needs to be stored carefully and be retrieved immediately.

 

 

 

Definition of Terms

Access.  This refers to the availability of the warrant of arrest to the criminal investigator.

Acquisition.  The warrants of arrest will be coming from all over the country and, in time, the Warrants Branch will be able to acquire a substantial number on top of the old ones.

Collection Development.  The process involving the compilation of all the warrants of arrest in a manner where retrieval is easy and storage is efficient.

Cost.  The amount of money needed to cover the cost of the proposed system of digitalization.

Creation.  A system involving the making of the warrant of arrest.

Criminal Investigators.  The persons directly involved and hopefully, benefited by this proposed system.

Digital Archiving.  The technology available in storing volumes of information.

Infrastructure.  The equipment needed to install the system for use by the PNP.

Preservation.  The process of keeping the warrants of arrest free from wear and tear so that when they are needed, they can be reproduced immediately.

Retrieval.  The process wherein existing warrants of arrest are pulled out from storage.

Storage.  The safekeeping of warrants of arrest, arranged in such a way that retrieval is quick and efficient.

Warrant of Arrest.  A legal document presented to a suspect that informs him of the crime raised against him.

CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

Chapter 3

 

Methodology of Research

 

 

 

            This chapter deals with the methods used in the study.  A comprehensive discussion on how the data was obtained, validated and treated is presented herein.

 

Research Method

            This study used the descriptive-normative research method.  The descriptive method is appropriate when determining the who, what, and how questions; so as with the needs, perceptions, and attitudes of the respondents.

            The normative method is considered suitable since the researcher were asked a standard set of questionnaire as provided by the PACU-COA, an accrediting agency.

            The researcher gained data from three groups of respondents; the students and teaching and non-teaching personnel from the Institute of Engineering.  The respondent employees include both the teaching and non-teaching personnel.  On the other hand, the student respondents were at least in their third year. 

 

Instrument Used

            On the administration part of the questionnaire, respondents were asked to rank the statements regarding the administrative organization, planning, financial management, administration of records, academic and scholarly connection goals and objectives.        On the library part of the questionnaire, respondents were also asked to rank the statements regarding administration and staffing, financial support, holdings, organization and maintenance of collection, services and physical facilities. On the students part of the questionnaire, respondents observed the admission, retention, student services, academic qualifications, professional performance, selection of faculty members, rank and tenure, teaching assignments, faculty development, salaries and benefits and faculty involvement. In addition, interview was also conducted on school personnel regarding the no. of linkages, no. of awards and recognition and board passers of the university.

            The PACU-COA has a standard questionnaire on how it accredits the country's universities and colleges. The same questionnaire was used in the study although only five educational components in the original survey were used. This includes aspects concerning the faculty, goals and objectives, library, administration and organization and student and personnel services. 

Last September, the same questionnaire had already been distributed and answered by on 35 students for validation.  The results of the pre-survey were tabulated and analyzed. This has caused the implementation  of changes in the Institute.  

 

Procedure of Gathering Data

            The researcher first informed the school authorities of her intention of interviewing the students and both the teaching and non-teaching personnel of the university.  The request was formalized by a letter to the President of the Feati University explaining the reasons for conducting the study.  The same information was given to the Dean of the Institute of Engineering and the other administrative heads of the school for proper channeling of information to the intended respondents.

            The researcher personally distributed and conducted the survey. Once the forms were already filled up, the researcher gathered the data and proceeded with her analysis.

 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Statistical Treatment of Data

            The profiles of the student respondents were also taken which includes age, gender, year level, and civil status.  For the employees, on the other hand, information such as age, gender, civil status, educational attainment, teaching experience and                     years of service were also noted.. 

The weighted mean scores of each question were determined.  Then, the researcher came up with an analysis for each item based on the principles of quality customer service. 

 

            On the difference in assessment between the customers and the employees, the variance was used.

 

            The statistical formula to be used will be the following:

            Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the responses

            n

%= -------- x 100          ;           n – number of responses

            N                                 N – total number of respondents

 

 

Weighted Mean:

 

            f1x1 + f2x2  + f3x3 + f4x4  + f5x5

x = ---------------------------------------------  ;

                        xt

 

where:             f – weight given to each response

                        x – number of responses

                        xt – total number of responses

 

 

 

Variance:

 

 

s2 = S (X - m)2

 

                               

To determine differences in the perception between the two groups of respondents, the F-test was used.

 

F-test, F

 

            s12

F = -------------

           s22

 

 

           

 

 

 

 

 

May 28, 2009

Strategic Management & Business Policy

 

            Enron is recovering from a scandal that has significantly decreased the company’s value to the public as a business firm suitable for investment. After the reorganization of Enron, there is need for the company to redirect its corporate strategy and establish a new mission and vision for the company. Enron’s mission and vision should initially focus on their voluntary acceptance of responsibility to its shareholders by ensuring that all its creditors are paid and all other obligations fulfilled. After the company has satisfactorily settled their debts and obligations reestablishing the company as a trustworthy firm for investment, then it can shift towards enhancing the value of the company through transparency and accountability measures. (Petrick and Scherer, 2003)  

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             

            In relation to leadership, Enron needs a CEO with a clean and good reputation based on a record of accomplishment for good business governance in terms of resource allocation and accountability coupled with the ability to draw the cooperation of employees, especially those who may have been discontented by the previous firm head. (Reinstein and McMillan, 2004)

 

            The purpose of a group of people leading the company is to have representation for the concerns of various groups with interest in the management and operations of the company (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003). This means that decision-making should be made as a group depending upon the input of all members of the group so that decision-making in not concentrated to the CEO.

 

Apart from removing the concentration of decision-making powers to the CEO, Enron should maintain as an independent entity its accounting and auditing firm. Management should not interfere with the work of the accounting firm. Policies for resource allocation approval should also be clearly defined and implemented as an added transparency measure so that ever member of the management team knows where and for what purpose company resources are allocated. (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003) 

           

            Shareholders comprise the group with enforceable claims upon the performance of the company with varying degrees of influence (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003) so that Enron needs to identify important stakeholders and prioritize interests, especially in case where competing interests cannot be simultaneously fulfilled based on the importance of the stakeholders or the urgency of satisfying their interests.

 

             Strategic mission refers to “a statement of a firm’s unique purpose and the scope of its operations in product and market terms” (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003, p. 23). These steps serve as essential elements of policy formulation: 1) identification of problems and issues and recognition of needs; 2) collection of information; 3) drafting; 4) review; 5) approval; and 6) implementation (Sabatier, 1991; Webber, 1992; Hill, 1997). An example of a mission statement for Shipping Company is as follows: Hong Kong Shipping Company is a leading domestic shipping company in Hong Kong with a reputation for reliability as a carrier due to its modern fleet and highly experienced staff. Through these strengths, Hong Kong Shipping Company seeks to become an international company efficiently operating in the global market. 

 

            Three objectives for a shipping company are: 1) to establish a network of business contacts and partners in the global market; 2) to train its staff in preparation for its international operations; and 3) to upgrade its facilities and processes to meet international shipping standards.   

 

            First strategy for Hong Kong Shipping Company is in terms of expansion perspective. The company should apply transnational strategy in order to achieve domestic responsiveness with global coordination (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003) since shipping requires coordination from one business unit to another located in different countries. Second strategy in terms of market entry is the use of acquisitions and joint ventures establish a hold over domestic markets (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003). Third strategy is diversification of services for the company to address greater needs (Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson, 2003).

 

            To enhance company value (Porter, 1980) in the global market Hong Kong Shipping Company may adopt these policies covering different areas of the business: 1) the company assumes responsibility for the influence of its activities to the communities and to the environment; 2) the company diligently ensures the safety, seaworthiness, reliability as well as the modernization of its fleet; and 3) the company implements safety and efficiency with greater weight accorded to safety.

 

 

 

Surgical Care of an Ophthalmic Surgery Patient

Cataract: Fading of the Light     

Cataract is generally defined as an opacity or loss of optical uniformity of the crystalline lens. The development of cataract is therefore a continuum, extending from minimal changes of original transparency in the crystalline lens to the extreme stage of total opacity. During the early stages of cataract development there may be no perceptible effect on the patient's visual function while in the late stage of opacity the patient's visual function may be reduced to the mere distinction between light and dark.

Cataracts become significant to the patient when they interfere with visual function. There are a variety of techniques and instruments available for the measurement of these various factors. High contrast resolution or acuity is measured according to the standards established by Snellen. Visual acuity often is referred to as “Snellen” acuity.  The chart and the letters are named for a 19th-century Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen (1834–1908) who created them as a test of visual acuity.  Visual acuity refers to the clarity or clearness of one’s vision, a measure of how well a person sees.  In the past, measurement of Snellen acuity was the only way that visual function was quantitated. Each of the other factors has a variety of different techniques available for its measurement in the evaluation of visual function. In each case there is no single established test. However, many techniques produce valid reproducible and useful measurements. In addition, the factor of ambient light level can be evaluated in its effect on the measurement of each of these aspects of visual function, and for this purpose several devices have been made available which simulate the glare production of intense light directed into the eye, light which is scattered by the developing cataract and may interfere with the patient's visual function in each category.

Cataract Surgery (Pre-Operative Measure)

            Cataract surgery is one of the most common and effective types of surgery performed today. More than a million and a quarter cataract surgeries are performed in the United States every year, and more than 90% of patients report an improvement in their vision after surgery (Given, 2005).

The process of evaluation and care for the patient with visual functional disability begins with awareness by the patient of his or her limitation. It then leads to consultation for the confirmation of diagnosis, the evaluation of prognosis and planning of appropriate therapy. Patients may become aware through self diagnosis, through conversation with family members or friends who have experienced similar visual functional disabilities or perhaps through a public service vision screening program.

Screening programs are of significant public benefit and are very common in seeking the risk factors associated with diabetes, hypertension, amblyopia, glaucoma, carcinoma of the breast, etc. The objective of screening programs is the identification of risk factors in patients who are asymptomatic with the purpose of establishing earlier diagnosis. Visual functional disability may reach an advanced stage in patients who feel entirely asymptomatic. This is the apparent explanation for studies which have shown that a lower incidence of automobile accidents occurs in states where visual screening for driver licensure is carried out relative to those where no such screening is performed (Gray, et. al, 1999).

In most circumstances, cataract surgery is elective. For the patient with gradually developing cataracts, management consists of reassurance, support and education about the cause of visual disability and its prognosis. During the development of nuclear sclerosis, myopia is induced and changes of spectacle lens prescription will often improve visual function. The use of strong bifocals, appropriate lighting, occasional magnification and other visual aids may satisfy the changing vision requirements as a cataract progresses. Therapeutic dilation of the pupil assists the occasional patient to see around central posterior subcapsular cataract, however, it may also increase glare and visual discomfort. The patient will make the elective decision regarding cataract surgical intervention. The decision will be based on full information regarding the correct diagnosis, the prognosis for improvement and a detailed discussion of the potential risks and benefits of the procedure.

However there are contraindications wherein surgery should not be performed under the following circumstances. Since surgery is an elective decision on the part of the patient, or with the consent of the immediate family of the patient in cases that the patient is not mentally sound to decide for herself (Diane McDonald), surgical operation should not be pursued when the patient or the family do not desire to do so. If the use of glasses or visual aids can still provide functional vision satisfactory to the patient’s needs and desires, after a diagnosis with an ophthalmologists, then surgery would be a distant option. The surgeon and the ophthalmologists however could also decide not to pursue surgical procedure if repeated medical diagnosis shows that surgery will not improve visual function. They could also decide not to give surgical intervention to cataract patients if it shows in the medical record of the patient that she is unfit for surgery. It is very important to have a pre-operative diagnosis before committing to surgical intervention.

            The majority of patients undergoing cataract surgery are elderly persons, a patient population with a high prevalence of concurrent multiple medical problems such as coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dementia, arrhythmias, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, alcoholism, thromboembolic disease requiring anticoagulant therapy, and nutrition problems (American College of Eye Surgeons, 2001). Although the data are limited, anticoagulation does not appear to pose a substantial risk for seriously complicating ophthalmic surgery, whereas discontinuing these drugs may impart some increased risk for new thrombotic events in the patient with pre-existing cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, or thromboembolic disease. In addition, patients undergoing cataract surgery commonly have dysfunctional problems of aging, including psychosocial, economic and nutritional difficulties (ACES, 2001). Functional problems and their cause (often multiple and complex such as Alzheimer in the case of Diane McDonald), defined as difficulties that interfere with daily routines, are often unappreciated when conventional histories and physical examinations are done. Preoperative medical examination and appropriate testing should be done in all patients undergoing cataract surgery, whether the surgery is done in the hospital or elsewhere, and regardless of the type of anesthesia to be used. Preoperative medical management should be guided by the patient's age, the presence of concurrent medical illnesses, the patient's use of medicine and the patient's relative proximity to the location where surgery is performed.

            The choice of general, local or topical anesthesia may affect visual outcome indirectly, through the effects of nausea, vomiting, coughing or sudden movement during the preoperative period. Many cataract patients are elderly with multiple medical problems, and thus at increased risk for morbidity during a period of general anesthesia. On balance, properly managed local anesthesia is simpler and safer than general anesthesia, especially in patients with significant cardiac or pulmonary problems. Local anesthesia was recommended to Diane since she has history with peripheral vascular disease.

 Surgical Operation

Most conservative surgeons agree that simultaneous extraction is appropriate only in unusual circumstances, for example, when the surgery requires general anesthesia and repeated general anesthesia represents a risk to the patient. The principal concern which prevents many surgeons adopting simultaneous extraction is the risk of potentially blinding bilateral postoperative infection or endophthalmitis. With Diane McDonald, it was decided that no simultaneous operation would apply. Her surgeon decided to operate her right eye first since it is more seriously infected than her left eye.

Surgery should not be routinely performed in both eyes at the same time because of the potential for bilateral visual impairment and loss of the ability to adjust surgical plans for the second eye that are based on the results of first eye surgery. However, there are occasional circumstances under which bilateral surgery may be indicated, but the potential benefits and risks to the patient should be critically considered and discussed with the patient (Cassels, et. al., 1999). Consideration of the appropriate interval between the first-eye surgery and second-eye surgery is influenced by several factors: the patient’s visual needs, the patient’s preferences, visual acuity or function in the second eye, the medical and refractive stability of the first eye, the need to develop binocular vision and the presence of symptomatic anisometropia as well as logistical concerns of the patient in traveling back and forth to the physician’s office (Talbot & Perkins, 1998). The patient and ophthalmologist should discuss the benefit, risk and timing of second-eye surgery when they have had the opportunity to evaluate the results of surgery on the first eye. This is going to be more complicated with Diane’s case, suffering from Alzheimer, the physicians cannot measure Diane’s progress through self evaluation because of her mental condition.

The dramatic revolution in cataract surgery over the last 15 years has been spearheaded by the adoption of micro-surgical techniques. This includes transition to the extracapsular procedure and the development of safe, effective intraocular lenses, and the placement of the intraocular lens behind the iris. Effective treatment may require extensive additional complicated surgical procedures, e.g., glaucoma surgery, retinal detachment surgery, therapeutic vitrectomy, penetrating keratoplasty, and anterior segment revision. Prompt diagnosis and management of these conditions is a basic tenet of appropriate medical care. In the absence of co-morbid conditions and complications, a postoperative corrected visual acuity in the 20/40 to 20/15 Snellen acuity range is a reasonable expectation (80-90 percent likelihood) for a patient with functional impairment due to cataract (ACES,2001).

The motivation for using small incision techniques in the cataract surgery is enhanced safety coupled with a more rapid rehabilitation following the procedure. The rationale is that the smaller wound promotes less likelihood of wound dehiscence, more rapid healing and reduced postoperative astigmatism. There is now evidence that (1) the use of small incision technique leads to a more rapid functional rehabilitation of the patient; (2) the use of phacoemulsification leads to less induced postoperative astigmatism; (3) specific or overall complication rates associated with small incisions by an experienced surgeon, compared to a large incision extracapsular procedure, are as good or better (Keener, 1990).

Cataract Surgery (Postoperative Measure)

During the past twenty years, improvements in the technology of cataract surgery have greatly changed the postoperative management of the cataract patient. The widespread transition from general to local anesthesia, the earlier visual rehabilitation with intraocular lens implantation, and the trend toward smaller and durable incision designs have resulted in a much earlier return to the activities of daily life. These changes have also reduced the need for direct face to face care by the operating surgeon. However, the postoperative care is the responsibility of the surgeon, personally or through delegation to colleagues. It is important that care be provided to the patient by competent surgeons, who are both aware of and able to manage any and all complications of the cataract procedure. The postoperative patient is ordinarily examined on the first day following surgery, then again during the month following surgery. Additional visits are thereafter scheduled according to the surgeon's experience and the patient's needs. However, through the entire convalescent period, immediate and appropriate care must be readily available to the patient at any time of day or night. The surgeon continues to bear this ultimate responsibility.

The operating surgeon has the obligation to provide education and instruction to the patient regarding the following: resumption of activities, protection of the eye, the use of normal medications, the timing and scheduling of normal postoperative visits, the identifying signs and symptoms of possible complications, and detailed instructions for gaining access to emergency care. Since Diane’s suffering from memory loss due to Alzheimer’s, the surgeon and her immediate family or care giver should be instructed in providing instruction to the patient.

Role of Surgical Nurse in Cataract Surgery Patients

            In many surgical specialty areas, the current role of the surgical nurse practitioner (NP) continues to expand and evolve. This evolution may include the incorporation of the skills and functions of the Registered Nurse First Assistant (RNFA) into the role of the surgical NP. In 2003, new federal regulations were issued to universities, medical centers, and hospitals that trained resident physicians. These regulations included a mandate that resident physicians, including surgical residents, do not exceed an 80-hour work week. This has led to an increased demand for first assistants during surgical procedures (Zarnitz, 2005).

            The American Nurses Association's (ANA's) Code of Ethics for Nurses with Interpretive Statements expresses the moral commitment to uphold the goals, values, and distinct ethical obligations of all nurses. Provision four in the Code of Ethics with Interpretive Statements reads: the nurse is responsible and accountable for individual nursing practice and determines the appropriate delegation of tasks consistent with the nurse’s obligation to provide optimum patient care. Accountability with responsibility is one of the foundations of perioperative nursing because perioperative nurses are accountable for patient outcomes during the surgical experience. Accountability is the quality of being answerable. This provision clarifies that perioperative nurses are answerable for their decisions and the outcomes of those decisions. Core activities for perioperative nursing care include assessment, diagnosis, outcome identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation. When these activities are incorporated into daily practice, perioperative nurses are empowered to provide safe and competent care.

 

Marijuana: Good or Bad?

Marijuana pertains to the dried leaves and flowers of the cannabis plant, which contains the non-narcotic chemical tetrahydrocannibol (THC) at various potencies. It is smoked or eaten to create the impression of being "high." The different strains of this herb bring out different sensual effects, ranging from a sedative to a stimulant. If smoked, it is quick acting; the first effects are usually felt within seconds. The peak follows within minutes and then declines sharply after about forty five minutes, with a ninety minute tail-off (Rietbrock, 155-9). A euphoric and relaxing feeling is usually reported while others experienced introspective dreaminess, increased appreciation of music sleepiness and chronological time distortion. The effects however can be subtle and first time users often detect a little or no effect.

The effects of Marijuana

                The Brighter Side

When a person smokes marijuana, the active ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) doesn't haphazardly drop-kick brain cells to create side effects. THC embraces specific sites on cells called receptors and launches a series of reactions that lead to the drug's side effects (Kibiuk, 1996). This recognition directed scientists to find of one of the receptor's natural partners -- a derivative of a fatty acid, dubbed anandamide, after the Sanskrit word for bliss.     Advocates of the positive benefits of marijuana look past behavioral effects of the drug, including a sense of euphoria, and changes in mood, perception, memory and fine motor skills, and point to a long list of potential medical benefits. Anandimide is recognized to inhibit nausea, offer relief from glaucoma, decrease muscle spasms, reduce blood pressure, alleviate anxiety, stimulate appetite, stop convulsions and kill menstruation pain (Kibiuk, 1996).

                The Darker Side

            Most of the studies published about marijuana is its over emphasis to the negative effects of the body. And these studies did not fail on their argument that indeed marijuana, though, an organic substance have some serious effects to vital organs.

Brain- Tetrahydrocannibol (THC), the non-narcotic chemical found in marijuana is a highly powerful and pleasurable intoxicant. It affects, alters, and damages brain cells controlling thinking, emotion, pleasure, coordination, mood and memory (Marijuana and Medicine, 43). Marijuana accumulates in the microscopic spaces between nerve cells in the brain called "synapses." This clogging interferes by slowing and impairing transfer critical information. Long term use causes the brain to stop production of brain chemicals necessary to "feel good" - a negative feedback condition (Loo, Hoorens, Hof, & Kahan, 32).

Lungs- Emphysema, the damage and destruction of air sacs in the lungs, is a common illness reported by weed smokers. Marijuana reduces the lungs ability to bring oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. Bronchial tubes are inflamed, thickened and produce more mucus; resulting in narrowing of the air passages, known as chronic bronchitis. Marijuana has twice as much "tar" as cigarette and significantly increases chance of lung cancer (Earlywine, 143).

Other vital organs- The heart, the most important organ in the body, is also subjected to the harmful effects of marijuana. The use of marijuana speeds up heartbeat as much as 50 percent increase in blood pressure, it also poses great risk to those with hypertension and heart disease. Marijuana also have adverse effects to both male and female reproductive systems. It can cause decrease and degenerate sperm count and cause lower sex drive. Females can have egg damage, suppression of ovulation; disrupt menstrual cycle and alteration of hormone level. Regular use during pregnancy can lower birth weight and cause abnormalities similar to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (Earlywine, 158).

            Cannabinoid intoxication can also mimic certain aspects of psychoses like schizophrenia. These psychotic disorders typically include odd thoughts, auditory hallucinations, and inappropriate emotions. Auditory hallucinations usually include hearing voices that do not exist. Inappropriate emotions might include smiling when frightened or sad (Andreassi, 85).

With so much scientific evidences as to the adverse effects of the use of marijuana, it is right to pause for a while and think if the “natural high” we allegedly receive from the famous weed is really worth it. In fact, scientists speculated that our body is also capable of giving us the “natural high” derived from marijuana. According to Kibiuk (1996) our brain have a natural anandamide system that could hold the same benefits as marijuana, with less or no complications at all. So the next time we “light up”, its good to ponder first if the few moments of euphoria is worth the risk we give to our body.

 

MODERN MILITARY ORGANIZATION- ITS RELEVANCE TO THE 21st CENTURY

Modern Military Organization

Its Relevance to the 21st Century

 

Introduction

            The very basic role of the military all over the world is to provide for its nation’s defense and defend its sovereignty. That is its very raison d’être. The military professional expertise is built and imbedded around that role. But the military profession is expected to pursue other roles in support of its particular society, roles quite outside the traditional concept of the military as a force for the defense of the nation.

            A generation ago, the terms "military intervention" and "conflict resolution" would almost never have been expressed in the same breath. The domain of conflict resolution has its roots in the peace movements that dotted the 20th century, most of whose members found the use of force detestable. Militaries have intervened in the domestic affairs of other countries time and time again, but rarely have they done so in an attempt to end a complex emergency or intractable conflict ( 2003).  Since the close of the cold war, military intervention for humanitarian ends and conflict resolution has increased dramatically. This can include the use of troops in traditionally unconventional ways such as disaster relief, peacekeeping missions, engineering missions, public health care and many others. While its non traditional role increased, the traditional combat role of the military was ebbing due to the prevailing peace time in most parts of the world.  The military’s role in helping to avoid wars does not decrease the role of the military profession as a fighting force, in fact, successful deterrence depends in part on the profession’s ability to fill its fighting role. General , while he was Chief of Staff of the Air Force, was fond of stating that “forces which cannot prevail will not deter”.

The Modern Military and the Threats of the 21st Century

Globalization caused by the forces of liberal trade and technological advancement have reduced the world to an unprecedented extent and have resulted in a high degree of interconnectedness and interdependence between states. Many countries are finding it difficult to handle these security challenges on their own as such threats surpass borders. Security challenges have, thus, become more diverse and multifaceted in an interconnected world – political, economic and even environmental factors have an impact on the security of the nations. These new strategic realities dictate that closer cross-border cooperation and multi-dimensional responses are increasingly needed to ensure national and regional security. Internationally, the strategic landscape was altered with the end of the Cold War. Instead of bringing about an end to conflicts, this event brought about new uncertainties as countries continue to adjust to the strategic realities of a post-Cold War world.

(Terrorism) Terrorism is loosely defined as an attack to governments that are legitimate and accepted by the people they govern. They seek to undermine and destroy a political system and even a way of life that is desirable or good . Terrorism involves political aims and motives. It is violent or threatens violence. It is designed to generate fear in a target audience that extends beyond the immediate victims of the violence. The violence is conducted by an identifiable organization. The violence involves a non-state actor or actors as either the perpetrator, the victim of the violence, or both. Finally, the acts of violence are designed to create power in situations in which power previously had been lacking (i.e. the violence attempts to enhance the power base of the organization undertaking the actions) (, 2004).

Terrorism has been a recurring theme in some areas of the world, even when it has occurred in different contexts. The area that now constitutes Israel and the Occupied Territories (the old Palestinian Mandate) has also had waves of dissident terrorism. The Arab and Jewish communities attacked each other, and both sides utilized terrorist tactics in the conflict. There have been the attacks by Palestinian groups, struggles between the secular PLO and Hamas, and attacks by Jewish extremist groups. The continuing violent campaigns by various groups, the failure of any successful negotiations for a future Palestinian state, and the limited prospects for such a state have created increased Palestinian support for the use of violence ( 2002:92-3).

(Hi-Tech threats) From nuclear bombs to biological weapons, modern military organizations and the society at large is being threatened by this unorthodox weapons of warfare. The more technologically complicated the weapon the wider the range of threat. Iraq, Iran and Sudan have always been rumored to posses such weaponries making them a threat not only in the Arab region but to the whole world. Military agencies on the other hand are also modernizing their troops to combat such threats. United Arab Emirates for example has the strategy to modernize its Armed Forces as part of the overall policy to boost the defense capabilities of the country by acquiring the most sophisticated conventional armament and technology.

Acquisition of this sophisticated technology was a national security imperative necessitated by the need to safeguard the achievements of the country.  According to  , Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces” At no time has the UAE been a source of threat to any country. We do not harbour any sinister intention against any one. Therefore, our endeavor to modernize our military should be seen in the context of the need to beef up our national security as well as in the context of safeguarding our vital national interest. A strong UAE military will reinforce regional and global peace and stability”. He added, as if to conclude the humanitarian role of the UAE’s armed forces "The long-standing UAE tradition in the field of humanitarian works is a noble one. It is an investment that impacts positively on UAE relations with the wider human family. This kind of investment also brings nations closer and promotes cooperation and global stability”.

Role of the Modern Military Agency in the 21st Century

Peacekeeping in the 21st century is the new challenge for the military. Peacekeeping today does not simply involve just military or police actions. Instead, peacekeeping have evolved to be multi-dimensional where peacekeepers, amongst their traditional roles, help to strengthen the rule of law and to monitor human rights violations. Peacekeepers also take on issues related to disarmament, demobilization and reintegration. These are non-traditional roles of the military, but nevertheless necessary ones like assisting a devastated country to return to a state of normalcy. The new challenge for armed forces therefore includes how to prepare peacekeeping troops for these demanding and daunting roles.

            Humanitarian relief is a significant area of concern for militaries in view of the many large-scale disasters that have occurred all over the world. For militaries that belong to the international community, it is expected of them to lend their helping hands for humanitarian relief mission. These major disasters, man-made or natural, do not respect political boundaries, and have the potential to inflict damage on local and regional economies, as well as the social stability and security of states.

Partnership and cooperation among states will make a substantial difference to its ability to deal with disasters. National armed forces can play an important role in a coordinated response to humanitarian and disaster relief contingencies, especially in large-scale and acute disasters, as they are disciplined, operationally ready and can contribute valuable assets.

            The new strategic trends in the 21st century have also meant that the military needs to take on the added responsibility as a defense diplomat, a task usually performed by foreign affairs officers. Military officers can help to build the foundations for regional cooperation which is based on mutual trust and confidence. They can do so by forging close defense ties and promoting military exchanges and exercises. Defense dialogue and interactions will serve as additional channels for countries to resolve differences and misunderstandings. These ties could further solidify regional defenses among states or nations by cooperating in guarding its territories which are strategically significant to the region as a source of economic and political power.

 

UAE Armed Forces and Crisis Management in the Gulf

            At the end of the twentieth century, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) enjoys a favorable strategic position compared to the rest of the southern Gulf States. The federation faces no immediate threat of invasion, overwhelming debt, organized domestic opposition or economic collapse. The emirates' rivalries have largely abated and there appears to be the beginnings of a federal civil society. In addition, the United States ensures the federation's security.

            Unlike any other Middle Eastern state, the United Arab Emirates is a federation, consisting of seven tribally-based emirates that controls the southeastern portion of the Arabian peninsula south of Bahrain and Qatar. The federation covers 83,600 square kilometers and is bordered on the north by the Persian Gulf and Iran, on the east by Oman, and on the south and west by Saudi Arabia. The UAE is strategically important because it produces 10% of the world's oil supply and has the fourth-largest natural gas reserves in the world. Over the past 30 years, the UAE has used these resources and strategic location to become one of the wealthiest states in the world. It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and has supported Western security policies in the Persian Gulf. The emirates permits the use of its air bases and ports to allied nations, the country owns the only harbors in the Persian Gulf deep enough to berth an aircraft carrier. In the long run, the stability of the UAE is critical to the free flow of shipping though the Strait of Hormuz and the defense of the GCC from Iran and Iraq.

            The UAE maintains armed forces of 64,500 personnel and combined with those of the GCC, have the daunting task of securing its country’s borders, which is a strategic importance in the world economy where the flow of the valuable oil passes by.

Border Disputes

            The UAE's foreign policy, much like its domestic politics, has been defined largely by border disputes and the politics of the individual emirates. Currently the UAE has territorial disputes with three of its immediate neighbors: Iran, Oman and Qatar; in the past, it has clashed with Saudi Arabia as well. The most serious such conflict, however, is the long-standing dispute with Iran over three Gulf islands: Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs. Since 1992, this dispute has come to define the UAE's entire relationship with Iran. Abu Musa has a population of around 600 people, and is situated at the mouth of the narrows of the Strait of Hormuz. The other islands are closer to the Persian Gulf's sea lane, but only one of these, the Greater Tunbs, is inhabited, with about 350 people. There are few significant resources on the islands apart from red oxide (coloring pigment) and oil, and only Abu Musa can accommodate large ships. Abu Musa is a critical and strategic territory. The control of these islands by bad elements could have a severe impact to paralyze the smooth flow of shipping with in the Gulf region. This large ship usually carries oil to many different parts of the world and to countries which needs oil supply to run their economy. At present, the presence of the United States armed force with in the region is helping in maintaining the balance of power and the flow of shipping in the Arabian Gulf.

            In contrast to the federation's dispute with Iran over the islands, the UAE has been able to address its territorial problems with Saudi Arabia and Oman by direct negotiation and by skillful use of Abu Dhabi's oil wealth. Saudi Arabia is the federations' most important neighbor, and relations have been close for many years. Saudi-UAE territorial disputes were largely put to rest when Zayid ceded Zarrarah oil field to Riyadh in exchange for Saudi recognition of UAE sovereignty over the Burami Oasis in 1992. The UAE's territorial disputes with Oman, on the other hand, remain an open issue. Zayid built a close rapport with , to whom the UAE president has given substantial subsidies as well as political and military assistance. This relationship has helped Zayid resolve two serious border clashes in 1978 and 1992. Today Oman and the UAE conduct joint military exercises, and their citizens travel between the two countries without visas. Nevertheless, the border is not delineated and is a potential source of future conflict.

The Balance of Power in the Gulf

            UAE’s diplomatic ties with the United States have somehow maintained the balance of power in the Gulf despite threats from Iran and other fundamentalists group. The United States is the only country that possesses the capabilities necessary to defend the federation. The two states' relationship blossomed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when Abu Dhabi supported the "Tanker War" and provided important financial and logistical assistance to Operation Desert Storm. In 1991, Abu Dhabi signed a loose defense pact with the United States, which permits Washington to base troops and equipment within federation boundaries. The UAE has also emerged as one of the world's largest markets for U.S. arms manufacturers; Abu Dhabi purchased $360 million in U.S. arms between 1992-94 alone. Since the Gulf War, Jebel Ali port in Dubai has become crucial to the U.S. naval operations in the Persian Gulf because it is the safest liberty port in the region and the only harbor in the Gulf deep enough to berth an aircraft carrier. Fujairah, which faces the Indian Ocean and is connected to the Gulf coast by a modern road, would be critical to American operations were the Strait of Hormuz closed off. In addition, U.S. warplanes fly out of UAE air bases on support missions for Operation Southern Watch over Iraq, and it has pre positioned materiel on UAE soil.

            The UAE has tried to balance Washington's power in the Gulf and reintegrate Iraq into the regional balance of power by cultivating commercial and military ties with America's regional and international rivals. This move deteriorated the US-UAE diplomatic ties. UAE was against the US sanctions on Iraq, and US supports of Israel. The UAE also maintains close commercial and political ties with all of the permanent members of the UN Security Council and Japan.  It also has tried to lessen its military dependence on the United States by signing "mutual defense pacts" with France, the United Kingdom and Turkey. However, the pact has done little to enhance the UAE's security or lessen its reliance on the United States. Britain, France and Turkey cannot safeguard the UAE's territory on their own because they lack the capability to project power into the Gulf without U.S. assistance.

            The challenges facing the UAE as it tries to balance the great powers and ensure its security in the future will be ones of geographical scale and military capability. Put simply, the United States and Iran are much larger and more powerful than the UAE; they will pursue whatever policies they feel are in their interests regardless of what Abu Dhabi thinks or how many advanced weapons it purchases. Although some states and international organizations may be able to check American and Iranian power, none can realistically guarantee the UAE's security or prevent unilateral military action by either Tehran or Washington. The United States is, and will most likely remain, the only country with the ability to meet the federation's security needs in the foreseeable future.

UAE’s Military Policy

            (Modernization) The UAE military's principal challenges are identical to the federation's chief dilemma in foreign affairs, geographical scale and military capability. No matter how much money the UAE spends, its armed forces will never surpass, or even achieve parity with, the federation's most likely adversary, Iran. Nor will the UAE ever be able to achieve parity in numbers or in the quality of its soldiers, with any of its neighbors. Thus, the UAE military's primary mission is to serve as a tripwire that can hamper an invading army and hold its ground until reinforcements arrive. Unfortunately, the UAE's armed forces cannot meet either of these objectives effectively.

            Though UAE defense spending has held relatively steady since 1992, the UAE traditionally devotes a great deal of its resources to defense, as much as $4.9 billion or 13.6% of its GDP and 66.9% of its yearly budget. Contracts expected to be announced this year commit the UAE to spending $16 billion by the year 2000. This accounts for 10% of the UAE's estimated oil income during that period. Unfortunately, the politicization of arms purchases has undermined this investment in modern weapons. The UAE has switched primary suppliers four times since 1980, and maintains weapon systems from a dozen countries. Abu Dhabi's insistence on unique and high-tech weapons impedes procurement as well, and pointlessly increases costs by creating diseconomies of scale. Even if procurement were not so heavily politicized, the UAE military would not be standardized because individual emirates buy weapons systems without consulting the federal government. Dubai's Lion tanks, for instance, are not compatible with Abu Dhabi's Declerck tanks; nor does Abu Dhabi's air defense system protect Dubai. The army has three types of tanks alone: the Lion, the Declerck and the BMP. None of these tanks is standardized or interoperable in terms of supply or sustainability. Though this problem will subside as Dubai cuts its defense spending, it will take years to reverse.

            However from 1996 to 2000 period, UAE undertake their defense modernization plans, while Oman waited until the 2001 to 2005 period to begin its procurement and modernization drive in earnest. This has had important effects on the success of their procurement efforts, which took place in a post-Cold War buyer’s market. The smaller GCC states successfully manipulated this market to secure access to cutting-edge Western military technology at more affordable prices and benefited from the lessons of post-Cold War operations. In comparison, Saudi Arabian arms purchases were largely decided within the first year after Operation Desert Storm, before post- Cold War market and operational trends had made an impact on the arms industries. The result has been that Saudi Arabia now fields an unwieldy and financially unsustainable Cold War military, while the other GCC states are building trimmer post-Cold War forces that were designed to undertake missions more relevant to the future external threat profile.

            (“Intelligence Sharing”) A key area of future is the integration of GCC military intelligence systems with US ones. Overlaying this process will need to be the development of multi-level organizational intelligence-sharing systems that allow US and Gulf coalition partners to share some, but not all, of their intelligence, a subject that has been under discussion for some years. In the sphere of technical intelligence collection, the GCC could play a very significant role in coalition intelligence gathering as long as it continues to procure advanced sensors and other command, control, communications, computerization, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance assets. The US Navy plans to maintain what it terms “expeditionary sensor grids” in each area where it is habitually present, and GCC forces could make up a significant part of the Gulf sensor grid, providing persistent sensor coverage to the US’s other command, control, communications, computerization, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance system, even when the US may not be able to keep low-density high-value intelligence gathering assets in the Gulf.

The Gulf States are beginning to procure the same advanced sensors that the US Navy is using as the eyes and ears of the sensor grid. The E-2C Hawkeye 2000, aircraft likely to be deployed by the UAE and Oman, will be able to feed data directly into the US system, as could other locally owned sensors if they are purchased and effectively absorbed into service.

 

The advent of the 21st century brought about an unprecedented economic and civilization growth unsurpassed in the history of mankind. But all of this human civilization advancement is very fragile considering the bigger threats that the “enemy” can generate. The military as an institution is dynamic and very flexible by adopting itself to the changes in the world. As the old adage says, “the only permanent thing in the world is change”. And those that can’t adopt losses.

 

References:

MODERN MILITARY ORGANIZATION - ITS RELEVANCE TO THE 21st CENTURY

Modern Military Organization

Its Relevance to the 21st Century

 

Introduction

            The very basic role of the military all over the world is to provide for its nation’s defense and defend its sovereignty. That is its very raison d’être. The military professional expertise is built and imbedded around that role. But the military profession is expected to pursue other roles in support of its particular society, roles quite outside the traditional concept of the military as a force for the defense of the nation.

            A generation ago, the terms "military intervention" and "conflict resolution" would almost never have been expressed in the same breath. The domain of conflict resolution has its roots in the peace movements that dotted the 20th century, most of whose members found the use of force detestable. Militaries have intervened in the domestic affairs of other countries time and time again, but rarely have they done so in an attempt to end a complex emergency or intractable conflict (, 2003).  Since the close of the cold war, military intervention for humanitarian ends and conflict resolution has increased dramatically. This can include the use of troops in traditionally unconventional ways such as disaster relief, peacekeeping missions, engineering missions, public health care and many others. While its non traditional role increased, the traditional combat role of the military was ebbing due to the prevailing peace time in most parts of the world.  The military’s role in helping to avoid wars does not decrease the role of the military profession as a fighting force, in fact, successful deterrence depends in part on the profession’s ability to fill its fighting role. General , while he was Chief of Staff of the Air Force, was fond of stating that “forces which cannot prevail will not deter”.

Recent trends which impact Military establishments          

            One such trend is globalization caused by the forces of liberal trade and technological advancement. These forces have reduced the world to an unprecedented extent and have resulted in a high degree of interconnectedness and interdependence between states. Many countries are finding it difficult to handle these security challenges on their own as such threats surpass borders. Security challenges have, thus, become more diverse and multifaceted in an interconnected world – political, economic and even environmental factors have an impact on the security of the nations. These new strategic realities dictate that closer cross-border cooperation and multi-dimensional responses are increasingly needed to ensure national and regional security. Internationally, the strategic landscape was altered with the end of the Cold War. Instead of bringing about an end to conflicts, this event brought about new uncertainties as countries continue to adjust to the strategic realities of a post-Cold War world.

 

The modern role of the Military

            Peacekeeping in the 21st century is the new challenge for the military. Peacekeeping today does not simply involve just military or police actions. Instead, peacekeeping have evolved to be multi-dimensional where peacekeepers, amongst their traditional roles, help to strengthen the rule of law and to monitor human rights violations. Peacekeepers also take on issues related to disarmament, demobilization and reintegration. These are non-traditional roles of the military, but nevertheless necessary ones like assisting a devastated country to return to a state of normalcy. The new challenge for armed forces therefore includes how to prepare peacekeeping troops for these demanding and daunting roles.

            Humanitarian relief is an significant area of concern for militaries in view of the many large-scale disasters that have occurred all over the world. For militaries that belong to the international community, it is expected of them to lend their helping hands for humanitarian relief mission. These major disasters, man-made or natural, do not respect political boundaries, and have the potential to inflict damage on local and regional economies, as well as the social stability and security of states.

Partnership and cooperation among states will make a substantial difference to its ability to deal with disasters. National armed forces can play an important role in a coordinated response to humanitarian and disaster relief contingencies, especially in large-scale and acute disasters, as they are disciplined, operationally ready and can contribute valuable assets.

            The new strategic trends in the 21st century have also meant that the military needs to take on the added responsibility as a defense diplomat, a task usually performed by foreign affairs officers. Military officers can help to build the foundations for regional cooperation which is based on mutual trust and confidence. They can do so by forging close defense ties and promoting military exchanges and exercises. Defense dialogue and interactions will serve as additional channels for countries to resolve differences and misunderstandings. These ties could further solidify regional defenses among states or nations by cooperating in guarding its territories which are strategically significant to the region as a source of economic and political power.

 

UAE Armed Forces and the Gulf States

            At the end of the twentieth century, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) enjoys a favorable strategic position compared to the rest of the southern Gulf States. The federation faces no immediate threat of invasion, overwhelming debt, organized domestic opposition or economic collapse. The emirates' rivalries have largely abated and there appears to be the beginnings of a federal civil society. In addition, the United States ensures the federation's security.

            Unlike any other Middle Eastern state, the United Arab Emirates is a federation, consisting of seven tribally-based emirates that controls the southeastern portion of the Arabian peninsula south of Bahrain and Qatar. The federation covers 83,600 square kilometers and is bordered on the north by the Persian Gulf and Iran, on the east by Oman, and on the south and west by Saudi Arabia. The UAE is strategically important because it produces 10% of the world's oil supply and has the fourth-largest natural gas reserves in the world. Over the past 30 years, the UAE has used these resources and strategic location to become one of the wealthiest states in the world. It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and has supported Western security policies in the Persian Gulf. The emirates permits the use of its air bases and ports to allied nations, the country owns the only harbors in the Persian Gulf deep enough to berth an aircraft carrier. In the long run, the stability of the UAE is critical to the free flow of shipping though the Strait of Hormuz and the defense of the GCC from Iran and Iraq.

            The UAE maintains armed forces of 64,500 personnel and combined with those of the GCC, have the daunting task of securing its country’s borders, which is a strategic importance in the world economy where the flow of the valuable oil passes by.

Border Disputes

            The UAE's foreign policy, much like its domestic politics, has been defined largely by border disputes and the politics of the individual emirates. Currently the UAE has territorial disputes with three of its immediate neighbors: Iran, Oman and Qatar; in the past, it has clashed with Saudi Arabia as well. The most serious such conflict, however, is the long-standing dispute with Iran over three Gulf islands: Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs. Since 1992, this dispute has come to define the UAE's entire relationship with Iran. Abu Musa has a population of around 600 people, and is situated at the mouth of the narrows of the Strait of Hormuz. The other islands are closer to the Persian Gulf's sea lane, but only one of these, the Greater Tunbs, is inhabited, with about 350 people. There are few significant resources on the islands apart from red oxide (coloring pigment) and oil, and only Abu Musa can accommodate large ships. Abu Musa is a critical and strategic territory. The control of these islands by bad elements could have a severe impact to paralyze the smooth flow of shipping with in the Gulf region. This large ship usually carries oil to many different parts of the world and to countries which needs oil supply to run their economy. At present, the presence of the United States armed force with in the region is helping in maintaining the balance of power and the flow of shipping in the Persian Gulf.

            In contrast to the federation's dispute with Iran over the islands, the UAE has been able to address its territorial problems with Saudi Arabia and Oman by direct negotiation and by skillful use of Abu Dhabi's oil wealth. Saudi Arabia is the federations' most important neighbor, and relations have been close for many years. Saudi-UAE territorial disputes were largely put to rest when Zayid ceded Zarrarah oil field to Riyadh in exchange for Saudi recognition of UAE sovereignty over the Burami Oasis in 1992. The UAE's territorial disputes with Oman, on the other hand, remain an open issue. Zayid built a close rapport with , to whom the UAE president has given substantial subsidies as well as political and military assistance. This relationship has helped Zayid resolve two serious border clashes in 1978 and 1992. Today Oman and the UAE conduct joint military exercises, and their citizens travel between the two countries without visas. Nevertheless, the border is not delineated and is a potential source of future conflict.

The Balance of Power in the Gulf

            UAE’s diplomatic ties with the United States have somehow maintained the balance of power in the Gulf despite threats from Iran and other fundamentalists group. The United States is the only country that possesses the capabilities necessary to defend the federation. The two states' relationship blossomed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when Abu Dhabi supported the "Tanker War" and provided important financial and logistical assistance to Operation Desert Storm. In 1991, Abu Dhabi signed a loose defense pact with the United States, which permits Washington to base troops and equipment within federation boundaries. The UAE has also emerged as one of the world's largest markets for U.S. arms manufacturers; Abu Dhabi purchased $360 million in U.S. arms between 1992-94 alone. Since the Gulf War, Jebel Ali port in Dubai has become crucial to the U.S. naval operations in the Persian Gulf because it is the safest liberty port in the region and the only harbor in the Gulf deep enough to berth an aircraft carrier. Fujairah, which faces the Indian Ocean and is connected to the Gulf coast by a modern road, would be critical to American operations were the Strait of Hormuz closed off. In addition, U.S. warplanes fly out of UAE air bases on support missions for Operation Southern Watch over Iraq, and it has pre positioned materiel on UAE soil.

            The UAE has tried to balance Washington's power in the Gulf and reintegrate Iraq into the regional balance of power by cultivating commercial and military ties with America's regional and international rivals. This move deteriorated the US-UAE diplomatic ties. UAE was against the US sanctions on Iraq, and US supports of Israel. The UAE also maintains close commercial and political ties with all of the permanent members of the UN Security Council and Japan.  It also has tried to lessen its military dependence on the United States by signing "mutual defense pacts" with France, the United Kingdom and Turkey. However, the pact has done little to enhance the UAE's security or lessen its reliance on the United States. Britain, France and Turkey cannot safeguard the UAE's territory on their own because they lack the capability to project power into the Gulf without U.S. assistance.

            The challenges facing the UAE as it tries to balance the great powers and ensure its security in the future will be ones of geographical scale and military capability. Put simply, the United States and Iran are much larger and more powerful than the UAE; they will pursue whatever policies they feel are in their interests regardless of what Abu Dhabi thinks or how many advanced weapons it purchases. Although some states and international organizations may be able to check American and Iranian power, none can realistically guarantee the UAE's security or prevent unilateral military action by either Tehran or Washington. The United States is, and will most likely remain, the only country with the ability to meet the federation's security needs in the foreseeable future.

UAE’s Military Policy

            The UAE military's principal challenges are identical to the federation's chief dilemma in foreign affairs, geographical scale and military capability. No matter how much money the UAE spends, its armed forces will never surpass, or even achieve parity with, the federation's most likely adversary, Iran. Nor will the UAE ever be able to achieve parity in numbers or in the quality of its soldiers, with any of its neighbors. Thus, the UAE military's primary mission is to serve as a tripwire that can hamper an invading army and hold its ground until reinforcements arrive. Unfortunately, the UAE's armed forces cannot meet either of these objectives effectively.

            Though UAE defense spending has held relatively steady since 1992, the UAE traditionally devotes a great deal of its resources to defense, as much as $4.9 billion or 13.6% of its GDP and 66.9% of its yearly budget. Contracts expected to be announced this year commit the UAE to spending $16 billion by the year 2000. This accounts for 10% of the UAE's estimated oil income during that period. Unfortunately, the politicization of arms purchases has undermined this investment in modern weapons. The UAE has switched primary suppliers four times since 1980, and maintains weapon systems from a dozen countries. Abu Dhabi's insistence on unique and high-tech weapons impedes procurement as well, and pointlessly increases costs by creating diseconomies of scale. Even if procurement were not so heavily politicized, the UAE military would not be standardized because individual emirates buy weapons systems without consulting the federal government. Dubai's Lion tanks, for instance, are not compatible with Abu Dhabi's Declerck tanks; nor does Abu Dhabi's air defense system protect Dubai. The army has three types of tanks alone: the Lion, the Declerck and the BMP. None of these tanks is standardized or interoperable in terms of supply or sustainability. Though this problem will subside as Dubai cuts its defense spending, it will take years to reverse.

            However from 1996 to 2000 period, UAE undertake their defense modernization plans, while Oman waited until the 2001 to 2005 period to begin its procurement and modernization drive in earnest. This has had important effects on the success of their procurement efforts, which took place in a post-Cold War buyer’s market. The smaller GCC states successfully manipulated this market to secure access to cutting-edge Western military technology at more affordable prices and benefited from the lessons of post-Cold War operations. In comparison, Saudi Arabian arms purchases were largely decided within the first year after Operation Desert Storm, before post- Cold War market and operational trends had made an impact on the arms industries. The result has been that Saudi Arabia now fields an unwieldy and financially unsustainable Cold War military, while the other GCC states are building trimmer post-Cold War forces that were designed to undertake missions more relevant to the future external threat profile.

The Game of Intelligence

            A key area of future is the integration of GCC military intelligence systems with US ones. Overlaying this process will need to be the development of multi-level organizational intelligence-sharing systems that allow US and Gulf coalition partners to share some, but not all, of their intelligence, a subject that has been under discussion for some years. In the sphere of technical intelligence collection, the GCC could play a very significant role in coalition intelligence gathering as long as it continues to procure advanced sensors and other command, control, communications, computerization, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance assets. The US Navy plans to maintain what it terms “expeditionary sensor grids” in each area where it is habitually present, and GCC forces could make up a significant part of the Gulf sensor grid, providing persistent sensor coverage to the US’s other command, control, communications, computerization, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance system, even when the US may not be able to keep low-density high-value intelligence gathering assets in the Gulf.

The Gulf States are beginning to procure the same advanced sensors that the US Navy is using as the eyes and ears of the sensor grid. The E-2C Hawkeye 2000, aircraft likely to be deployed by the UAE and Oman, will be able to feed data directly into the US system, as could other locally owned sensors if they are purchased and effectively absorbed into service.

The modern Military agency of the UAE

            The UAE have always been capable of playing a major role in defusing tensions in the region through its judicious policy of promoting dialogue as mean to resolving conflicts. UAE's defense strategy revolved round national security interests. The UAE strategy to modernize its Armed Forces is part of the overall policy to boost the defense capabilities of the country by acquiring the most sophisticated conventional armament and technology. The ability of the UAE to incessantly host various international shows, notably Dubai Air Show, IDEX and other shows stands as testimony to the security and stability enjoyed by the country. These kinds of shows are a big source of income for the country.

            Acquisition of this sophisticated technology was a national security imperative necessitated by the need to safeguard the achievements of the country.  According to  , Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces” At no time has the UAE been a source of threat to any country. We do not harbour any sinister intention against any one. Therefore, our endeavor to modernize our military should be seen in the context of the need to beef up our national security as well as in the context of safeguarding our vital national interest. A strong UAE military will reinforce regional and global peace and stability”. He added, as if to conclude the humanitarian role of the UAE’s armed forces "The long-standing UAE tradition in the field of humanitarian works is a noble one. It is an investment that impacts positively on UAE relations with the wider human family. This kind of investment also brings nations closer and promotes cooperation and global stability”.

           

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MILITARY ALLIANCES OF THE GULF STATES

           

             The location of the Persian Gulf has made the region an important economic and strategic position. Due to the geological strategic changes during the last two decades the region suffered a prolonged period of tension and instability. The roots of instability mainly arise out of frontier disputes, territorial claims, ideological differences and supranational intervention (,2001). In fact in 1990, a war erupted in the Gulf when Iraq invaded Kuwait, with military aides coming from the U.S., the Operation Desert Storm was a success against Iraq.

After the Cold War era, traditional military activities around the world have abated while its humanitarian purposes and conflict resolution roles increased (, 2001). Militaries paramount of concern is always protecting its own nation’s sovereignty and security. War is always considered as a last and desperate option for most of the countries.

Gulf States have always been very concerned about its borders and territorial claims. Military agencies among these states are beefed up to insure security borders and defense. Other than that, because of the significant role of the Gulf to world economy, military agencies are also assigned the task of securing the smooth flow of trades, most especially its important product, the oil, along the Gulf.

Modern military thinkers know that alliances are important to security. The Gulf States realized the importance of cooperation in securing not only their borders but the entire Gulf as well. Because of this, militaries are also being diplomats by forging ties with other states military agencies. The Gulf States formed the Gulf Cooperation Council for this purposes. Because of this, the modern military agency in the Gulf is not only concerned of protecting its borders and nation’s security, it also plays a vital role in ensuring no economic sabotage would happen, with the importance of oil to almost all countries economy, a sabotage in the Region would bring about sudden economic activity halt to nations who are solely dependent on oil for their energy source. Lastly, modern military agencies are also modern diplomats, forging ties and alliances with its neighboring states to ensure a more effective security in the region.

References:



 

Core Features of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Introduction

Autism is a disorder that is characterized by impairments in three broad domains namely, social, communication and repetitive or compulsiveness.  The prevalence of autism especially in the case of autism of children has prompted immediate attention not only to the families, but also to the government, medical institutions and educational institutions too, that necessitates them to collaboratively work together to ensure that an autistic child needs are really met.  In this paper, it discusses the essence of autism spectrum and as to what extent it impacts autistic children.  Also, it tackles as to how it affects the disparate domains of the developmental processes of an autistic child.  By being able to have sufficient knowledge with the essence and impacts of autism, it would serve as a cue, to both teachers and the therapist team to dedicatedly work together in the assessment, differentiation and the realization of the intellectual and communicative potential of an autistic child.  Any case of autism does not necessarily can be concluded that an autistic child is mentally retarded but it is just saying that they have several impairments that hamper their normal developmental growth.

 

Theoretical background:

Autistic spectrum, also known as an autism spectrum, is a biological disorder, although, diagnosed as a development and current behaviour disorder, pertains to a collective system that has an impact on the developmental and behavioural aspect which results from the combination of traits.  Autism, in the sense of the tight category defined by Kanner (1943), was thought to be a rare disorder, affecting four in 10,000 worldwide. In 1992, Fombonne (2002) says that the current 'best' estimate is one in 160, thus, making autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) the most common of the developmental disorders. In 1978, Rutter (1978) synthesized Kanner's original report and subsequent research in which he included in his definition of autism, the other essential features that characterizes autism, the early onset, impaired social development, impaired communicative development, and the unusual behaviours of the type Kanner had described.  From the definition of autism that falls into the criteria purported by Rutter (1978), encompasses the foundation of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edition or the DSM – III) definition of autism, in which it was included, for the first time, as part of a new class of disorders-the pervasive developmental disorders (American Psychological Association 1980).  Moreover, the DSM-IV definition entails the occurrence of at least six criteria that includes the group 1 criteria relating to at least two social abnormalities, group 2 relating to communication impairment and the group 3 that pertains to the range of interests and activities such that is onset on the conditions prior age 3.  Both The DSM-IV and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), has classified ASD as a pervasive developmental disorders (PDD).  Simply stated, the ASD and PDD are more or less synonymous to each other, but with certain distinctions between them.  By PDD it pertains to the developmental disorders in terms of psychological and behavioral aspects in which it covers the language, communication, self-help skills, motor coordination and executive functioning.  Overall, the concept of autism spectrum summed up the broad range of the clinical disparity in the fields of symptomatology, developmental, functioning, and varying treatment responses. Classic autism then inhere on the spectrum, thus, together with its related disorders is what have been referred to as the ASD.

The presence of distinct symptoms in autism is not accountable to the divergence ASD because seemingly is linked to other factors such as intelligence, adaptive functioning level and few numbers of autistic symptoms.  At the severe end of the autism spectrum lies the low-functioning autism which has profound impairments in many areas, to the conditions within the PDD class, like the Asperger's syndrome, high-functioning autism, Rett’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) and atypical autism, to "normal" behaviour and perhaps hypersocialization on one end of the spectrum, which is at its high end.

CORE FEATURES OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

SOCIAL DOMAIN

Within the social domain, the central to the feature of autism can be found in the lack of social reciprocity, inability to sense social relatedness, the disintegration of both verbal and nonverbal aspects, the development of selective friendships and the sharing of excitement, interests, and enjoyment with others (Filipek et al., 2000; Volkmar et al., 1999; Volkmar & Klin, 1999). In fact, the social domain is considered as the most salient and readily observable aspect, wherein in as early as 6 months old, it is already indicative of the possible occurrence of autism.  The toddler years, for instance, undergoes to the developmental process where toddlers gets to be exposed from social interaction and may at times seek for it, like wanting to have a playmate to play with.  An autistic child with the inability to reciprocate socially only tends to selectively make meaningful eye contact, accommodates to the certain voices and faces of others with a certain few, presumably whom they can recognize, unlike the typical developing peers.  Additionally, responsiveness in smiling may be nonexistent and the social imitative games, in which a typical toddler gets to enjoy a lot, mayhap only be largely one sided.  From the accrued studies of home-videotaped recording, emerges several evidence that supports the occurrence of early social deficits before autism recognition (Bernabei, Camaioni, & Levi, 1998; Osterling, Dawson, & Munson, 2002), as well as from prospective studies of very young children using standardized assessment tools (Baron-Cohen, Cox, Baird, Sweettenham, & Nightingale, 1996; Lord, 1995). In a study of 1-year-olds, for example, the raters “blind” to subject group membership revealed that children later identified as manifesting ASD looked at others and oriented to their names less frequently than did infants with mental retardation and typical social development (Osterling et al., 2002).  Similarly, Adrien et al. (1993) found out that the absence of social smiling and appropriate facial expressions by 1 year of age were predictive of autism.  The analyzed videotapes, in retrospection, exhibited that children aged between 9- to 12-month-olds exhibited impairments in visual orientation, sensitivity to tactile stimulation, and limited responsiveness to name, in contrast with typically developing children and those with developmental delays (Baranek, 1999), after which they have been diagnosed as having ASD. 

Fundamentally, children with autism are less likely to engage in observation, imitation, approaching and interaction with age-mates.  For example, in social settings such as play groups, wherein developed toddlers experiences a lot of fun, the autistic toddler, instead of getting into the fun tends to remain on the periphery of the said social activity and oftentimes are seen to exhibit interest in the exploration of the presence of inanimate world that surrounds them yet fail to grasp on imaginative and interactive play.  Thus, autistic individuals lack the fundamental ability to understand what others are thinking or expecting, to recognize verbal and nonverbal social cues, and to visually comprehend emotional expression (Baron & Cohen 1991).

Wing and Gould (1979) described three subtypes of children with autism: aloof, passive and active but odd or what otherwise is known to be the triad of impairments. Aloof children are described to have minimal interest in engaging into social interactions, unacquainted with the social world, avoidance of eye contact and irresponsive to verbal contact. The passive subtype refers to children showing less level of pleasure when in a social interactions, although, passively accept only the recognizable people they know of. Autistic children who are seen to be spontaneous in social approaches but these approaches are however, interpreted as odd.  The triad of impairments is descriptive as to how autism child behave and react into social situations in predictive ways. 

The extreme deficits in the social domain brought about by ASD can extend into some personality disorders as social autistic traits overlap.  A schizoid personality disorder, for example, refers to the detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression. Wolff and Chick (1980) described a group of children diagnosed with schizoid personality disorder as resembling those with Asperger's syndrome (form of PDD) but differentiating from children with ASD by the absence of delayed language development, emotional unresponsiveness, gaze avoidance, and ritualistic/compulsive behaviors.