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Free Thesis Statements on Managing Change in Recession: Case Study of Marks and Spencer

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Thesis Statements on I would want to investigate the impact of the recession on Marks and Spencer and the kind of change management techniques they employ

EATING DISORDERS

 

A Cross-Sectional Study of Eating Attitudes Associated With Psychosocial Factors among Chinese Adolescents In Hong Kong

 

 

Table of Contents

I.      Introduction.. 3

II.     Eating Disorders.. 4

A.    Anorexia Nervosa. 4

B.    Binge Eating.. 5

C.    Bulimia Nervosa. 6

III.        Possible Causes of Eating Disorders.. 7

A.    Sociocultural Causes. 7

B.    Familial Influence. 8

IV.       Possible Risks of Eating Disorders.. 9

A.    Stress and Negative Mood.. 9

B.    Affected Self-Esteem.. 10

V.    Eating Disorders in the Asian Region.. 11

VI.       Conclusions.. 11

VII.      References.. 12

 

I.                  Introduction

A huge part of existing psychological studies focus on the rather sensitive years of adolescence. This may be the case possibly because these are the most formative years in a person’s life. As seen in many textbooks and studies relating to adolescents, this period is peppered with numerous problems psychological in nature. One of the most pressing issues among the youth today is the emergence of eating disorders. Most studies relate this problem to issues of body image, self-esteem, and even social acceptance. This paper will attempt to provide a summary of these existing studies relating to eating disorders. Specifically, the study will look into the possible causes and implications of eating disorders among adolescents. However, an early discussion on the established conditions relating to eating disorders will be taken into consideration. Specific attributes of anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating will be described and discussed to provide a clear image of the medical maladies offered by eating disorders. With regards to the possible causes of eating disorders, the study will look on the sociocultural factors as well as those relating to the family. On the possible implications of the condition, the discussions will revolve around stress, self-esteem, and negative body image. All in all, the observations and arguments made in this paper will be backed up by scholarly and academic articles dealing with psychological problems and eating disorders.     

 

II.               Eating Disorders

A considerable number of individuals all over the world suffer from eating disorders. The following discussions will focus on the three most accounted for cases of eating disorders: anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating. Descriptions of these medical cases as well as conducted studies will be pointed out in this part of the paper.   

A.   Anorexia Nervosa

This type of eating disorder is characterised with a considerably low body weight and a distorted image of the body. (, 1996, ) There are also indications that the person suffering from anorexia has this compulsive apprehension about gaining weight. In most cases, the person suffering from anorexia engage in abnormal acts like starving themselves, purging and vomiting, and excessive weight loss measures. There are also accounts where these people tend to overdo diet pills and other weight-loss drugs to keep the weight away. (, , and , 2002, ) In some instances, the eating disorder tends to be unchecked thus triggering severe outcomes. To illustrate, anorectics tends to prematurely die of starvation and the consequent effects of lack of nutrients in the body. (, 1994, )

There was a misnomer about this condition that the sole sufferers are females. However, recent studies have revealed that it is also prevalent in males. (,  and , 2005, )  , , , , , (1997, ) stated in their study that there are three causes of this condition to individuals: biogenetic predisposition, individual characteristics, and family functioning. This means an anorectic may exude “feelings of ineffectiveness,” high dependence to the family, and possibly have other anorexic relatives.  

B.   Binge Eating

Binge eating is an eating disorder that displays a compulsive overeating behaviour among the individuals suffering from it. ( and , 2000, ) Other studies indicate that binge eating is a precursor to another type of eating disorder, bulimia nervosa. (. 1997, ) The same study indicated that males binge eat more as compared to females. This indicates that most adolescents suffering from this disorder are male. However, recent studies have indicated that the phenomenon called the “yoyo trap” among females has been attributed to both dieting and binge eating. (, , and , 2005, ) This shows that the recent trends present a rather slight difference in gender in binge eating. In the same manner, there are some studies that have attributed binge eating disorder to genetics of the individual. ( and , 2006, ) This is in line with other studies in obesity and other overweight issues in society. They claim that binge eating that occurs at least twice a week contributes to the onset of obesity among these individuals.

Treatments on this disorder range from therapy to the more extreme measures of surgery. Recent trends indicate that “stomach stapling” or bariatric surgery has become the sought after medical procedure of overweight individuals in the United States. ( and , 2006, ) However, there are instances where those who have undergone the procedure gain the weight back because they continue to suffer from binge eating disorders. ()      

C.   Bulimia Nervosa

This type of eating disorder is described as a combination of binge eating and deliberate vomiting of the taken nutrition. ( and , 1998, ) Essentially, the condition reflects the disorder relating to the lack of control of the person with regards to eating. Initially, this condition is considered as an offshoot of anorexia; however it is recently recognised as a distinct disorder. (, , , , , , , , , and , 1998, )

 The study of  (1998, ) indicated that the major implication of this condition is depression. This is shown on the low serotonin and high plasma norepinephrine of those suffering from this condition. (., 1998, ) For some reason, this condition is rather limited to Western countries. (, , , , and , 2006, ) This is seen primarily because of the emphasis of these societies to thinness as connected to beauty. In the study made by  (2006) among adolescents in Turkey, they claimed that there is a significantly low prevalence of bulimia in the population. However, they recognise that the existing environments in western countries and Turkey were significantly unlike. They pointed out that as the country tends to become more developed they foresee a similar change in the eating behaviour of the adolescents of the country. In the same way, changes in the existing eating disorders will similarly entail.

III.            Possible Causes of Eating Disorders

The following discussions will provide a collection of claims regarding the possible causes of eating disorders in general. The discussion is divided into a couple of parts: sociocultural causes and familial influence. The first part will point towards the implications of body image in society while the other will consider the implications of genetic and other reinforcements taken by the family on the occurrence of eating disorders.   

A.   Sociocultural Causes

There are numerous studies that point to body image as a primary cause of eating disorders. Studies tend to focus on media images seen by adolescents as a means of benchmarking their body image. ,  and  (2004, ) defined body image as the way individuals “think, feel and behave” as they consider the individual features of their physical being. In the same way, the study also indicated that it is the nature of human beings to carry out things that would eventually improve their body image.

However, recent studies have indicated that boys and girls who look at magazines tend to criticise images of muscular and skinny models as opposed to admiring them. (, 2003, ) The same study also indicated that adolescents tend to consider the articles more as compared to the actual images appended in these periodicals. This shows that there may have been a shift in the consciousness of adolescence from imagery to the actual contents of the reading materials. In the same manner, it also shows the importance of media literacy so as to avert any form of body image disturbance among the youth.   

B.   Familial Influence

Other studies have similarly pointed out the role of the family in triggering the occurrence of eating disorders among adolescents. There are certain studies that imply that the family environment and genetics have some influence on this area. In the study of , , , and (1994, ), they indicated that family difficulties tend to influence eating disorders among the youth, especially in the female population.  and  (1994, ) claimed in their study that elements like interpersonal skills, self-concept, and organizational skills tends to be deficient in families with adolescents having eating disorders. They also claimed that the effects of such inadequacies in the family environment are able to be averted through education. This shows not only the fact that additional learning will make these adolescents aware that what they are doing is wrong, it will also provide them the opportunity to acquire a level of independence from their families. Interaction with other people and educators could change certain perspective that adolescents have acquired in their family environment.

In the context of being genetic, studies have also indicated that obesity, the effect of binge eating disorders, may have been caused by genes of the family. ( and , 2006, ) In the same study, they claimed that the cause is primarily based on the energy imbalance that parents may have passed to their children. On another study, it claimed that genetic and personality factors of the parents have the tendency to be hardwired to the child. (, 2004, ) This shows that certain abnormalities tend to come from familial lines which in turn affect the eating patterns of adolescents.

IV.           Possible Risks of Eating Disorders

In line with the discussions of the possible causes of eating disorders, the following will deal with the possible risks and outcomes that the individual may acquire if he/she suffers from an eating disorder.    

A.   Stress and Negative Mood

In the study of  and  (2002, ), they noted that individuals suffering from eating disorders tend to similarly suffer from stress and acquire a very negative disposition. Other studies even noted that having eating disorders tend to be expressions of anger on the part of the adolescent. ( and , 2000, )

Other forms of negative effects of eating disorder is established in the paper of , , and  (2005, ) which indicated that general effects of these tend to sum up to depression. Indications of depression are also seen as an implication of these disorders by an earlier article made by , , and  (2002, ). They even claimed that these eating disorders tend to co-exist with other psychiatric disorders, particularly frequent is depression. It is also their claim that this co-existence of depression and eating disorders tend to be more prevalent among adolescents.    

 

B.   Affected Self-Esteem

Studies have been made liking the individual’s self-esteem and the occurrence of eating disorders. In the study of  (2000, ) she focused on the implications of eating disorders on women. In this context, she pointed out that the media messages indicating the “importance of appearance” tend to push women into engaging in eating disorders. She noted in her study that college women with anorexia and college women with bulimia tend to suffer from low levels of self-esteem. This indicates that women tend to engage more in eating disorders when they have low levels of self-esteem. In addition, it has been earlier pointed out that the primary effect of bulimia is depression. (., 1998, )

Along with the affected level of self-esteem, body dissatisfaction is also deemed as a considerable risk and implication of eating disorders. However, in considering this implication, it must be noted that there were studies that have established the fact that body dissatisfaction is bound by culture. ( and , 2002, ) This means that the context of an acceptable body image on a particular culture affect as to whether an individual is dissatisfied with his/her physical appearance or not. To illustrate, in a study in Latin American countries, body dissatisfaction tends to be based on slenderness on the part of women and muscularity with regards to men. (, , and , 2005, ) This same study has also indicated that with such level of body dissatisfaction, adolescents tend to engage in body-change strategies to address this dissatisfaction.     

V.   Eating Disorders in the Asian Region

The phenomenon of eating disorders is seen as more cultural, particularly with the concern of body image. In Korea, media representations of thin models have spawned negative body image with the adolescents in the country. (, 2003, ) This shows that media has a huge part in incurring this level of sensuousness to the public regardless of the region. As  and  (2004) claimed in their work, mass media could double as an intermediary to the consciousness of society. Though they pointed out that media is just a conduit, it could still supply both direct and circuitous effects on the existing circumstances in society. Thus the images of what is considered beautiful in media tend to indicate the ideal body image for adolescents in that region. Another study is made in Hong Kong which indicated that both men and women in the said administrative region have dissatisfaction on several body parts. ( and , 1997, ) In the said study, it found out that Chinese males in Hong Kong are more dissatisfied than women with regards to their weight. This indicates that male may have more tendencies towards eating disorders than women.

VI.           Conclusions

The discussions above have provided a detailed description of the eating disorders that are prevalent in modern society. It has established the possible causes and possible risks for individuals who may have succumbed to eating disorders. It should also be noted that the majority of the studies cited in this paper are articles relating to adolescent behaviour and eating disorders.

Based on the claims above, eating disorders is basically a universal phenomenon. This is seen in the fact that countries like Hong Kong and Korea tend to encounter similar problems. Nevertheless, it has also indicated that the issue is psychological in nature; this may indicate that the conditions are treatable and even avoidable.

The environment, on which the individual dwells, tends to have a considerable impact on the emergence of eating disorders. It is therefore important to note the responsibility of the family to be more vigilant in monitoring the development of their adolescent members.  To a certain extent, adolescents with eating disorders tend to be easily detected. Significant changes in weight are noticeable physical indicators of an eating disorder. Other determinants like depression also tend to be more noticeable. Early detection could provide the young individual time to realise that he/she is suffering from a disorder and that it should be rectified. In any case, the primary source of strength of the adolescent is still his/her family. Being the support system for the young individual will help him/her in his/her formative years as an adolescent.      

 

VII.        References

Implement Customer Service Strategies

PART 1 CUSTOMER NEEDS

1) Overview of Hilton London Paddington

 

With the existence of many hotel businesses today, the rise of competition among many is apparent. The competition among hotels is most evident in the event that several hotels offer the same products or services, to serve their customers and profit from the trade. This is the reason why hotels, in general, continuously undergo extensive research to further improve their products and services for the hotel’s benefit. Most hotels also evaluate their crafts to ensure the satisfaction and the continuous patronage of their consumers. Due also to the fast-changing technology of the modern world, consumers can easily demand from different hotels, and at the same time, hotels can immediately cope with these changes. The role of technology hastens the productivity and the interaction of consumers and hotels.

            In this light, consumers help dictate the flow of a hotel, as the production and the success of a hotel in the market depends on the demands of its consumers. Given that consumers are influenced by several concepts in purchasing a product, hotels must be careful in applying the concept of quality customer service. For this reason, hotels aim to satisfy their customers by not only improving on their services, but also by pleasing them, by showing positive attitudes towards their clients. Customer service is a very important aspect in terms of business and trade, for most consumers will prefer a hotel’s crafts along with the hotel’s assurance of the services’ good quality.

 

Hilton London Paddington aims for sustainable growth as a broad market leader in the hotel industry of UK as well as for segment leadership. In both cases, the hotel services of Hilton London Paddington will play a crucial part. Hilton London Paddington is able to establish its broad leadership usually by acquiring other strong hotel establishments and their services, which are then combined into a new, larger hotel. Offering training to its employees, improving the company operations, and the introduction of new innovation technologies then reinforces the positions of the various hotel services of Hilton London Paddington. This practically results in economies of scale that is able to create a distribution network for the hotel services of Hilton London Paddington. If a market is already in the control of other hotel establishments, Hilton London Paddington devotes its attention towards the development of a premium segment with its various hotel services and innovative technologies.

            The mission of Hilton London Paddington is to secure the growth of the business in a sustainable manner, while at the same time constantly improving the company’s profitability. The strategy to achieve this involves four elements:

1. Striving in order to reach a leading position in attractive markets
2. Focusing on securing a competitive share of the hotel market segments.
3. Working in order to improve the company’s efficiency and cut costs in operations.
4. Continuous growth through selective acquisitions for as long as they are able to create shareholder value. 

2) Hilton London Paddington’s Customers

Gone are the days when tourists have to find a place to temporarily stay for hours. Today’s tourists want to become as productive as possible while in their favorite tourist destinations and interact with different individuals and groups from various parts of the world. The technological advancement in hotel technologies has allowed tourists and guests at Hilton London Paddington to access communication tools in new settings. Because of this rigorous and hectic schedule of tourists and guests, it became imperative for them to indulge in relaxing hotel services to help them ease the tiredness after a day of visiting great tourist attractions.  

Many hotels focus on the performance of their services to outsmart other competitors, not focusing on the customer service the hotel must develop. Due to this, many hotels nowadays improve on their core values as an organization, and take into consideration the integration of developing customer service of their employees. Hilton London Paddington perceives customer service as a benefit, not only to their consumers, but also to the hotel as well. Customer service is similar to being customer focused, which means that Hilton London Paddington is driven by the goal of providing the customer with the highest level of satisfaction, concentrates on how the customer is better served by the hotel compared to the competitive offerings, and that all processes and activities in the entire hotel are integrated and coordinated to accomplish this goal.

 

 

3) Customer Records

According to Hilton London Paddington, the role of its customer service is to ensure that the needs of the customers are met; it is what makes the business makes money. The company invests resources for research on customers’ needs and analyzing customers’ feedback about what people think about their services; what do they like or dislike about hotel services; and what do they want from hotel services. The feedbacks and research are the basis of the company for innovation and development of new products.

In dealing with customers’ complaints, Hilton London Paddington provides telephone numbers customers can call to when they encountered problems regarding the services the company provided them. Feedback forms are provided at each table of Hilton London Paddington. The website of Hilton London Paddington also provides telephone numbers and address to be contacted with for customer complaints.   Once a customer complains about a hotel service, the staff will try to rectify the situation by replacing the product or service if the order is wrong or the quality of service or any product is not satisfactory. However, if the customer is still unhappy, Hilton London Paddington will refund the customers money.

4) Customer Expectations

Excellent hotel service quality is a must.

Hotel service quality generally pertains to a tourist’s perception over a hotel’s quality of services being offered. Based on the author’s interviews with the management and selected hotel staff of Hilton London Paddington, the hotel believes that people or tourists tend to interpret the services in their surroundings without realizing it. This interpretation is based on the visitors’ needs and preferences that will allow them to function more efficiently. This makes up the visitor’s overall experience or perception. This is the reason why Hilton London Paddington puts a premium on excellent service quality because it suggests awareness but not conscious awareness. The service quality is naturally enhanced when tourists could identify with specific hotel characteristics that they need or are important to them. Thus, the perception or experience in terms of service quality of the visitor is significantly related to the environment they wanted to be in.

For Hilton London Paddington, excellent service quality equates to the degree of efficiency and effectiveness of the implementation of their policies and tasks necessary to satisfy their customers, employees, and management. Their hotel service quality focuses on the careful management of the processes involved in the production and distribution of products and services.

PART 2.  Implementation of Strategies

1) Superior Service Standards

As part of the hotel industry, Hilton London Paddington’s goal is to present its products when and where the customer wants, refining its hotel services and develop new products to suit their customer’s tastes. With this goal, Hilton London Paddington gives emphasis on customer service. The company uses the term ‘customer service’ to describe the importance that customer satisfaction impacts on the success of the company. The customer service strategy of Hilton London Paddington is basically a program which is based on three principles: operational excellence, great marketing and real ‘sit up and take notice’ standards of customer service. The program aims to instill the basics of customer service to every team member of Hilton London Paddington. These basics include smiling and greeting the customer, presentation, good service and dealing with service problems themselves without looking for a manager.

2) Actions to be Taken

The customer service strategy of Hilton London Paddington emphasizes four critical steps. The first step is to set sight on the right target by taking care of customers and creating a motivating environment for staff; the second is to treat customers the right way by determining the kind of experience Hilton London Paddington wants its customers to have as they interact with every part of the hotel; the third is to treat employees the right way by using strategies ranging from smart hiring, to training and development, to managing performance and creating a recognition culture; and the fourth is to build the right kind of leadership by letting staff decides and think with the support of the manager.

A. Customer Service Session

 All over the world, Hilton London Paddington holds a quarterly customer service mindset session for its team members who include all the crews, managers and Hotel Support Centre Team to reiterate and motivate employees on the importance of providing consistent product quality, service, ambiance and value for money to the customers. In this session, recognitions are given to employees who are outstanding in their service to the customers.

B. Customer Service Training and Development

Hilton London Paddington invests on skills, knowledge, training and development of employee for different positions. The company has program which includes annual performance appraisals designed to let Team members know exactly what the expectations are and what opportunities exist for improvement.  Information and skills are well-communicated internally among employees; the company allows open communication all the way to the top.

At Hilton London Paddington, they treat each other as customers themselves so they exactly know what the customer wants and discuss them in every internal meeting wherein every idea of employee counts. Hilton London Paddington management gives importance to the ideas and opinions of the staff because they know that these staff members are the front liners of the company who have direct contact with the external customers. Employees are provided by feedbacks regularly about their performance so they are aware if they did not meet the company’s standard at a certain period and if one does not meet his internal customers’ needs. The company also does not allow bureaucracy instead maintain its culture which is a recognition culture- motivating employees through recognition.

C. Coaching Management System

Hilton London Paddington also created a coaching management system  that is managers become hotel coaches, teaching employees and providing them information rather than just giving commands to the staff thereby giving the staff chance for improvement. Internal competition was eliminated to promote commitment and creativity. Hilton London Paddington believes that its most valuable asset is its employees so it provides them the tools needed to elevate service to the customers.

According to Hilton London Paddington, the role of its customer service is to ensure that the needs of the customers are met; it is what makes the business makes money. The company invests resources for research on customers’ needs and analyzing customers’ feedback about what people think about their hotel services; what do they like or dislike about hotel services; and what do they want from hotel services. The feedbacks and research are the basis of the company for innovation and development of new products.

D. Customer Service Principles

            Hilton London Paddington operations are based on what the company calls the very core of customer expectations. It stands for Cleanliness, Hospitality, Accuracy, Maintenance, Product, and Speed. This system of measure has been the company’s tool to ensure consistency of service and product quality and is align with ‘customer service’ program.

E. Priority for Disabled Customers

            As part of its customer service, Hilton London Paddington provides facilities for people with disabilities. Hilton London Paddington provides a Disability Discrimination Act statement in compliance with the Disability Discrimination Act 1995. The statement stated that the company has improved its physical environment with more easily accessible facilities and has trained its employees to better understand and meet the needs of customers with disabilities.

3) Dealing with Complaints

In dealing with customers’ complaints, Hilton London Paddington provides telephone numbers customers can call to when they encountered problems regarding the services the company provided them. Feedback forms are provided at each table of Hilton London Paddington. The website of Hilton London Paddington also provides telephone numbers and address to be contacted with for customer complaints.   Once a customer complains about a hotel service, the staff will try to rectify the situation by replacing the product or service if the order is wrong or the quality of service or any product is not satisfactory. However, if the customer is still unhappy, Hilton London Paddington will refund the customers money.

Conclusion 

            Overall, Hilton London Paddington is a hotel that provides good customer service and makes excellent customer service a strategy for a competitive edge. It measure customer satisfaction through questionnaires, focus groups, market research and complaints, making its customers involved in the design of new products and services. Hilton London Paddington based its services on the needs of both the internal and external customers. Hilton London Paddington’s success can be measured with the three intangible values which are to understand the customer’s business, the willingness to commit to solving customer’s problems, and the education needed to deal with customers properly.

PART 2: KANGAROO CAR RENTALS

QUESTION 1

A)     I would define customer service as a very important aspect in terms of business and trade, for most consumers will prefer a company’s crafts along with the company’s assurance of the products’ good quality. I would perceive customer service as a benefit, not only to our consumers, but also to the company as well. Customer service is similar to being customer focused, which means that our company is driven by the goal of providing the customer with the highest level of satisfaction, concentrates on how the customer is better served by the firm compared to the competitive offerings, and that all processes and activities in the entire firm are integrated and coordinated to accomplish this goal.

B)     Because customers of Kangaroo Car Rentals look for convenience, cost and quality, the Sales Manager should concentrate on the technology and capabilities of employees to provide and deliver customer satisfaction. The link between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty must be emphasized, reporting that customers are satisfied at different levels, which result in different levels of loyalty and varying behavioral disposition to patronage with a provider. This is the reason why the company should strive to achieve higher levels of satisfaction than their competition, providing superior customer service and achieving a sustainable competitive advantage. Focusing on the needs of the customer through the slogan “Delight the Customer” can be done by caring for the customer, deeply understanding their activities, interests, and opinions around the particular value or solution that the firms are providing, and developing a pervasive attitude, which permeates throughout the firm such that it becomes incorporated as a culture. Once these values become inculcated to the employees of the firm, then the whole company can serve their customers better.

QUESTION 2

a)     The customer characteristics of Helen’s five-star hotel should be rich, famous, well-known citizens or celebrities who demand the best hotel services available. On the other hand, the customer characteristics of Damian’s local hostel include ordinary citizens or tourists who cannot afford to pay the rent of staying in a luxury hotel.

b)     Both customers of the two types of hotels will have similar needs and expectations: good service. The customers of both hotels will expect good service, this is when the hotel can satisfy their requests in a prompt and timely manner while bad service is when the hotel does not meet their requests and leaves them feeling angry and disappointed. 

c)      Generally, guests in both hotels expect high-quality service. In order for the General Manager to know what specific service improvement strategy should be implemented, a service-quality audit should be performed. Service-quality audits allow hotel managers to determine the need for a quality management program by providing information on the costs of common service errors to the organization. The process begins with the creation of task forces that will concentrate on specific departments, followed by the assessment of costs resulting from service errors classified as either recovery costs or opportunity costs. Managers of both hotels should recognize that a service-quality audit is merely the first step in service-quality analysis. The analysis can help managers identify the source and magnitude of service-quality deficiencies and assist them in deciding where to invest in service-quality improvements. Moreover, managers of both hotels must view their hotels as an interdependent system of work processes that are not bound by departmental lines. This interdependency creates internal customer relationships and an error in one department may have unknown or unanticipated impacts on other departments. Finally, a positive impact of the audit is that it can allow those who are actually doing the work to capitalize not only on their experience and expertise but also to provide them with ownership of the important task of improving service quality.

 

 

CUSTOMER SERVICE SURVEY

Dear Respondent,

 

 

We kindly request for your cooperation in this survey. We are currently assessing the customer service of hotels as an academic requirement.

Your response will be treated with outmost confidentiality.

 

1. What is Service? What does it mean to you?

2. What do think is: (a) Good service? And Bad or poor service?

3. What type of personality or character would be suitable for people working in the hotels?

4. In general, what type of interactions / communications do you usually have with the hotel staff?

5. In your opinion, what are the characteristics of service from the: i) five-star hotels and ii) local hotels?

 

REFERENCES

MARKETING

 

 

 

 

 

 

Proposal for Market Research on Online Learning

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Discovering the Reasons for Low Uptake of Online Courses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

By:

(Name)

(Course)

(Date of Submission)

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

                                                                                                                                    Page

 

Title Page                                                                                                                 1

                                                                                                                                   

Table of Contents                                                                                                  2         

 

1.0 Executive Summary                                                                                        3

 

2.0 Introduction & Background to the Problem                                             3

 

2.1 Concept of Online Learning                                                             3

                                                                                                                       

2.2 Beneficial Offers of Online Learning                                              4         

                                   

2.3 Online Learning in Hong Kong                                                        4         

                                               

2.4 Trends & Developments of Online Learning in HK                    5         

                       

2.5 Implications for the Current Study                                      9

3.0 Research Approach                                                                                        10                                                                                           

4.0 Research Design                                                                                             12

 

4.1 Data Gathering Method                                                                      12

 

4.2 Sampling Method                                                                                12

 

4.3 Projected Budget                                                                                13

 

4.4 Research Timetable                                                                            13

 

5.0 Data Analysis Techniques                                                                            13

 

6.0 Research Limitations                                                                                     14

 

7.0 Bibliography                                                                                                     14

 

 

 

 

 

1. Executive Summary

            Online learning has become an important aspect of education because of the benefits this offers to learning. However, in Hong Kong there is a slow uptake of online learning among students. Although different reasons have been propounded by previous research, data was obtained from document and policy analysis or interviews of key personnel from the Education and Manpower Bureau or educational institutions offering online courses. There is need to derive information from students themselves since this is the group that drives and directs online learning in Hong Kong. The research seeks to fill this information gap through a survey of university students in Hong Kong to obtain their perceptions, attitudes and behaviours towards online learning that influence their interest in online learning. The study should be able to clarify the issue by providing the reasons of students in deciding to or not to engage in online learning. 

2.0 Introduction & Background to the Problem

 

2.1 Concept of Online Learning

 

            Online learning is the fusion of learning and technology (, 1996).The emerging interest in the function of technology in learning emanated from several factors spanning social, economic and political aspects. Social aspects involve the need to enhance learning by reaching out to different people instead of waiting for people to approach the educational system. Technology provides the bridge for people to communicate regardless of geographic distance or time zone differences. This borderless means of communications allows teachers and students to transcend the classroom setting and facilitate learning to people willing to learn despite distance or time limitations. Economic aspects involve the greater demand for innovativeness in business operations that necessitates enhanced knowledge and skills not only in technology but also in learning that supports technology use. Technology enables teachers to support learning by using computer and internet technology as tools for learning and communication while at the same time providing an opportunity for students to gain experience in new technology through practice. It is the achievement of these competencies that would propel economies to the next century. Political aspects link teaching and technology by providing pressure to educators to enhance learning in order to derive informational and resource support for solving contemporary problems. Learning the analytical skills necessary in the assumption of leadership or advocacy roles in the community is equally important with being updated of emerging developments in the local and international political arena. Technology provides the tool through which both these skills can be achieved by students willing to learn and teachers willing to facilitate learning. (, 1997) 

2.2 Beneficial Offers of Online Learning

Globally, online learning offers a number of benefits that cover social, economic and political areas as previously mentioned. In the case of Hong Kong, online learning also holds potential gains in three areas, which are 1) English proficiency; 2) development of analytical skills; and 3) practical learning of communications technology.

According to  and  2002, Hong Kong faces the socio-economic barrier of English proficiency despite its engagement in global affairs requiring individuals to have a significant level of English proficiency to be able to communicate with their international counterparts.  (2001) explains that the internet provides students with a rich and diverse repository of resources to support the achievement of a significant level of English language acquisition through exposure to English educational materials.

 (2002) provides that online learning also allows students to develop analytical thinking by providing an independent learning environment that encourages students to engage in the cognitive process of identifying education needs and issues, understanding these needs and issues, and determining the best means of addressing these elements. (2001) further explains that analytical thinking develops from problem solving when online students are given assignments via the internet and they have to be able to work on their own in meeting these challenges.

 and  (2004) explains the third benefit of developing practical skills on communications technology as acquired by online students through frequent exposure to internet-based communications technology. This means meeting the dual educational objective of learning English while at the same time mastering internet communications technology.

2.3 Online Learning in Hong Kong

            Years after the integration of online learning into Hong Kong’s educational system, the projected results were not met because of the slow uptake of internet-based education among learners. Several studies have been conducted to provide an explanation for this phenomenon. The reasons propounded in these researches cover appropriateness of this mode of learning to Hong Kong, government initiative and support, educational institution innovativeness, and student acceptability.

             and  (2006) provides that the geographic characteristic of Hong Kong may not be compatible with online learning that explains the slow uptake of online education among Hong Kong students. Hong Kong has a small territory providing great accessibility of schools to students who walk, ride their bikes, commute to school with minimal inconvenience so that going to the physical schools is still preferred by students and their parents relative to online, home-based learning that requires additional expenses by the family. This implies the need to re-evaluate the place of online learning in the educational system amidst various environmental factors.  

             and  (2006) also add that insufficient support from the government explains the slow uptake of online education in Hong Kong. Despite the efforts of the Education and Manpower Bureau to integrate online learning tools into the educational system, the bureau failed to implement a comprehensive standard for online learning that covers the development of teaching/learning materials, teaching skills and competencies, and student support services resulted to the lack of a unified direction for online learning in Hong Kong with schools relying on their experience or the experiences of other schools in designing the online education curriculum and materials and training teachers, if at all they provide specialized skills training for teachers engaging in online learning. This means that having a comprehensive and uniform standard for online learning would provide clear guidelines for students, teachers and learning institutions in embracing online learning.

            A number of researches have focused on the extent of innovativeness of online learning institutions in developing their internet-based educational program.            and  (2002), provides that online learning institutions in Hong Kong failed to provide complete course options for students opting for home-based learning. As a result, internet learning tools merely become supporting mechanisms for learning in the physical classroom with teachers facilitating lessons and assignments through the internet such as site postings, email or chat. This implies that students seeking to engage in online learning may not be able to find online learning schools that provide course completion through the net so that they still have to report to the schools personally and that even if internet-based learning institutions provide complete courses, these may not be what some or most students want to finish.

             (2004) explains that the lack of innovativeness of educational institutions have placed upon teachers the bulk of the burden on the development of lessons, materials and performance assessment measures. This means that teachers take on these additional tasks for completion within the same time previously given to them resulting to lessons and materials with minimal preparations. This could affect the quality of online learning in terms of the clarity and appropriateness of the instructions as well as the assessment value of the learning exercises. Given these scenarios, students and parents would be turned-off to try or completely engage in online learning.

             (2004) adds that the lack of innovativeness of online learning institutions in Hong Kong is observed through the slow process of procuring e-learning materials in the international market and transposing these to fit the educational context of Hong Kong. Again, learning institutions rely upon the teachers to draw techniques from the international experience and translate these into lessons and materials suitable for Hong Kong students without providing sufficient financial and logistic support to this endeavour. Without lessons and materials to support complete course offerings, Hong Kong students obtain better educational benefits from taking lessons in the physical classroom and just supporting their English learning through online activities.

             (2004) propounds that the acceptability of online learning to students explains the slow uptake of this mode of education in Hong Kong. Among young people in Hong Kong, the internet is commonly associated with social communications and leisure activities implying two things: 1) students are more motivated to use the internet if this is for chatting with friends or surfing the internet rather than for educational purposes and 2) students face many learning barriers in home-based online learning because of the distractions that chatting or shopping opportunities provide. This means that the government and online learning institutions should market the internet to students as a fun means of learning while providing student support to ensure a significant level of discipline in the primarily independent learning method of virtual education.

 

 

2.5 Implications to the Current Study

            The reasons provided by previous researches for the slow uptake of online education in Hong Kong already cover different areas of study based on the derivation of information from the policies developed by the Hong Kong government and educational institutions together with the interview of teachers and school management. However, there is need to validate these results by deriving information from students themselves as the targeted population for online learning and the group that would likely determine the direction of online learning in Hong Kong.

            The current study seeks to gather data on the reasons for the slow uptake of online education among university students in learning institutions offering online learning programs to students. This would fill the information gap to clarify the issue. Results should be able to aid government and educational institution policy makers in determining the rights place for online learning in the educational system relative to the particular context of Hong Kong and develop means of achieving higher levels of viability for internet education through teacher and student support activities.  

3.0 Research Approach

To derive quality and comprehensive data, the study combines the quantitative and qualitative research approach.

Quantitative research finds direct link to deduction because it tests and develops hypotheses and theories. This research method leads to generalized results or deduction. Moreover, quantitative method also involves the treatment of quantifiable or measurable data. ( ,  and , 1998; , 2002) Qualitative research supports the gathering of detailed descriptions of characteristics, events and situations making this the appropriate approach for an in-depth study of the descriptions of a phenomenon. This research method follows the inductive approach. (, 1999; , 2003)

            Combining these two methods works for the study because determining the reasons for the slow uptake of online education in Hong Kong involves the consideration of quantitative data on the trends in online learning enrolment among students together with the derivation of qualitative data on the perceptions, attitudes and behaviours of students towards online learning. The combination of these two research approaches provides the study with both numbers and detailed accounts from which to draw valid explanations on why online learning has not achieved a level of popularity similar to different countries in the world.     

4.0 Research Design

4.1 Data Gathering Method

            To accomplish the research objectives and obtain necessary information, the survey method appropriately supports data collection on the reasons for the slow uptake of online education in Hong Kong. The survey method is a descriptive and non-experimental research method used to collect data for a particular phenomenon. This method is effective in studies involving the determination and assessment of the nature and extent of influence of a variable/s to other research variables. (,  and , 2003) In the given research, the variables influencing the decision of students to engage in online learning constitutes the focus of the research.

            The survey method allows the researcher to obtain unbiased, accurate and generalizable data. This data gathering method has advantages and disadvantages that should be considered in the application of the method so that disadvantages are as much as possible addressed. First, the method established the existence of a relationship between the variables but it does not determine the direction of the relationship ( and , 1994; , 1995). This issue is addressed in the research through the application of both the quantitative and qualitative approaches to data analysis. Qualitative data treatment involves an investigation into the underlying reasons of students in deciding to engage or not to be involved in online learning are obtained to fill the weakness of the survey method. Second is the reliance of survey method on self-reported data implying great dependence on the truthfulness and accuracy of information given by the participants, opening the research to the risk of obtaining unreliable data ( and , 1994; , 1995). The risk is addressed by deriving quantitative data to validate the answers of the respondents so that quantitative data addresses the limitations of qualitative data and vice versa. Third is the tedious research planning required by the survey method that involves time ( and , 1994; , 1995). The current research meets the minimum survey period requirement as indicated in the timetable for the completion of the research.

            The method will be applied through a survey questionnaire floated to randomly selected students of Hong Kong universities offering online learning programs. The survey questionnaire includes open-ended questions intended to elicit information on the reasons of the respondents in opting for physical classroom or home-based online education.

            Open-ended questions will be used to obtain a wider and in-depth data on the research topic. This type of questions has advantages and disadvantages but in the current research, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. The research can derive three advantages from using open-ended questions. First is the ability of the research to allow greater freedom to the participants to express their ideas, opinions and experiences on the variables being studied. Second is the minimization of bias since the research participants are not restricted to a limited set of responses. Third is the opportunity accorded to the respondents to qualify or explain their answers and contribute rich data to the study. However, there are also two advantages in using open-ended questions. First is the greater amount of time it takes for respondents to answer the questions but the inconvenience that the data gathering process may cause to the participants will be addressed by giving them one to two weeks to return the questionnaire. Second is the possibility that the researcher may misinterpret some of the responses but this will be dealt with by comparing secondary background data on the company with the first hand responses. (., 1995)

4.2 Sampling Method

To select the representative sample of respondents, the simple random sampling will be used. This will be applied by randomly selecting university students without consideration for classifications or strata to derive information on the characteristics of the university population. The names of all university students both enrolled in the physical and online learning settings will be obtained from the registration section of the school and a sample is randomly selected by computer. The sample for every university should comprise at least 10 percent of the total population of enrolees to achieve a respectable level of representation.

4.3 Projected Budget

Study Requirements	Cost HK$
1. Transportation	1,000
2. Computer Access & Internet Connection	500
3. Photocopying & Purchasing of Online Resources	500
4. Communications	500
5. Consultation & Research Support	5000
Total	7,500

 

4.4 Research Timetable

 

Activity	Period Covered (Month)
	1	2	3	4	5	6
Polishing of the Research Proposal
Gathering of Data
Analysis of Gathered Data
Writing of Preliminary Research Report
Finalization of the Research Report

 

5.0 Data Analysis Techniques

 

Quantitative data will be analyzed by looking at patterns emerging from the number of students engaged in online learning relative to the school population as well as the patterns of online learning enrolment in terms of age, gender, economic status, course preferences. This should be able to provide a picture of the extent that online learning is patronized by university students in Hong Kong. Qualitative data will be analyzed by looking at similarities and differences in answers to determine common factors influencing the decision of students over online learning. These will then be integrated to provide a cohesive response to the research problem and derive conclusions and recommendations for the enhancement of online learning in Hong Kong.   

6.0 Study Limitations

            A possible limitation of the study is data reliability. In relation to the research process, this is achieved by ensuring that the questionnaire is clear and able to derive information that meets the data requirements of the research. With regard to the data gathering process, reliability is ensured by explaining to the research participants the purpose of the research and the participation expected of them together with the insurance that their identities will be kept confidential to make sure that the participants are open with their perceptions, attitudes and behaviour towards online learning.  

 

7. Bibliography

 

Research Questions

Declaration - I, confirmed that I have carefully studied all the
Workbook references in constructing this proposal.

1.      Title – An exploratory study of the factors affecting the diffusion of mobile entertainment in Hong Kong

2.      Problem Setting – Although digital entertainment such as video games, music
and other rich media contents existed decades ago, they have just been adopted by
mobile communication channels since more advanced mobile handsets, infrastructures
and networks have been created and implemented in mobile operators. In addition, some makers are having problems in determining what types of entertainment packages should be appealing for the users. With many people using mobile phones today and trying to find products offers technologically advanced entertainment this research study can be considered as an important project in the next few years.

 

3.      Presenting Problem Definition – Accordingly, despite the high subscriber penetration rate,
mobile entertainment is still in its initial picking-up stage because of different aspects.  Herein, there are aspects that have been noted to hinder mobile entertainment makers to disperse more products. Such aspects may be related with regulatory body, data fees obtained by mobile service providers and content providers, complexity and benefits of using these kinds of entertainment services, plus other factors such as the availability of suitable handset for specific type of mobile entertainment.  Over the next five years, some enthusiasts have seen the potentialities of mobile devices; hence, in order to be successful in penetrating the target market for these products, a formal study of those factors is vital to give strategic viewpoint to encourage the overall adoption of mobile entertainment related services.

4.      Real-World Target – By identifying key enablers, disablers and their inter-
relationships, several strategies could be devised to outline suitable approaches in order
to predict and to facilitate the diffusion of mobile entertainmesnt services in Hong Kong.
With those results in mind, mobile entertainment business developers, product marketers
and technical implementers can use the research data and outcomes to evaluate
problems and to identify the suitability of their product development and marketing
strategies for the mobile entertainment sector in Hong Kong.

5.      Research Question – In this research study, the researcher attempts to answer the following queries:

 

1. What are the key factors affects the diffusion of mobile entertainment in Hong Kong?

2. What are the strategies that can be used by the marketers to diffuse mobile entertainment products in HK?

6.      Speculation – There are several local key factors that the researcher sees to influence the diffusion of mobile entertainment products. These factors are the context of regulatory body and cost of services will be considered. However, some of these factors could
be correlated with other factors to see whether these factors are interconnected in affecting the diffusion of mobile entertainment products.

 

7.      Intended Project Outcome – The expected project outcome will be a summary
of the major factors and their inter-relationships affecting the diffusion of mobile
entertainment sector in Hong Kong.

 

8.      Design for Collecting Primary Data – The BAGeD will collect primary data
such as the satisfaction of services, pricing, benefits for subscribers, etc. in addition, self-administered questionnaires will be designed concisely in order to obtain mobile users' opinions on the adoption of mobile entertainment in Hong Kong.  Also, secondary data through documentary search on related research topics can be used as reference models.

9.      Design for Processing Primary Data – After collecting the primary data and
secondary data, enablers and disablers of the diffusion of mobile entertainment can be
deduced.  Also, statistical relationships of those factors will be evaluated.  Hence,
strategic viewpoints based on the overall interpretation of data will be concluded.

 

PETERSON COMPANY

ACTIVITY-BASED COSTING: PETERSON CASE STUDY

I. Activity-Based Costing (ABC) versus Traditional Cost Systems (TCS)

            ABC is a support cost accounting methodology to TCS primarily due to the change in manufacturing products or execution of service of modern businesses ().  TCS is appreciated in the previous era characterized by operations that are labor-intensive, semi-automatic, with limited differentiation and with minimal overhead costs.  However, as technology and expertise advances through time, ABC is developed to capture a more accurate estimation of costs that can result to better allocation resources and setting pricing strategies.  ABC is able to show the connection of resources consumed and produced outputs leading to increase cost visibility and sound budgeting.

 

            TCS has the assumption that cost items exhaust resources, base costing in volume-related drivers and highly influence by structure ().  On the other hand, ABC believes that cost is unmanageable that makes activity analysis more realistic.  Another, ABC has cost basis on several stages and levels not merely on volume (e.g. unit level like direct labor hours) but also batch level (e.g. orders/ set-ups as in the case of Peterson), products level and facility level.  Lastly, ABC is focused on organizational processes (e.g. quality control, packaging) rather than bureaucracy (e.g. departments like accounting, paint section, trucking).  As a result, the organization can learn important information such as how to improve productivity and allocate resources efficiently.

II. Problems with the Existing System

            The first problem of the existing system in Peterson is the tedious task of tracing the budgeted overheads of the six departments.  This strategy is like an aggravation in the process of determining a more accurate approach to costing because the organization will have to trace overheads that are initially been budgeted.  In the process of tracing, application of costs uses only direct labor hours (DLH) that tends to distort the impact of material costs (MAT), machine hours (MCH) and other overheads.  The different cost driver rate per department also implies traditional cost system’s assumption of bureaucratic approach leading to a more labor-intensive framework which should not be the case because MCH in MC, PL and AS departments are very significant.        

 

            As DLH is continuously used by Peterson, profitability was declining as the firm introduced newer products such as GT102 and GT103.  As a result, costing errors occurred when Peterson tried to relate particular product attributes to unit products (e.g. DHL) when in fact costs can be related to batches, families and other products of the company.  Automation limited the effectiveness of DHL in costing because labor hours became smaller and the necessary overhead costs were substantially reduced.  Dollar costs were decreasing while time cycles took over the cost pressure seen in batch-related drivers.  The overly focus of management in controlling the variance figures also led the organization to execute misleading actions to achieve cost efficiencies which can adversely affected product quality.      

III. How ABC overcomes this Problem

            Cost drivers are allocated in the form of direct labor, materials and overheads (e.g. machines) but are individually allocated to departments.  This is the result of focusing on departmental costing which undermine the presence of other activity-related cost especially the presence of overheads.  The ultimate measure is the DLH which also minimizes the opportunity to measure other cost drivers present in other departments.  ABC minimizes the problem by creating homogenous cost pools for each department and allocates them to the three products based on their cost drivers.  As a result, there is a more accurate inclusion of necessary costs especially the overhead according to the activity precedents and significance.  ABC drives the company to focus cost controls from contributing activities from their planning and actual production of products.  The approach of ABC is that products utilize activities while activities utilize costs () which can promote integrative improvements to total quality management. 

 

IV. Cost under Current Approach

(See Spreadsheet)

 

V. Activity Schedule

(See Spreadsheet)

 

VI. Profit per Unit under ABC (See Spreadsheet)

VIII. Measures to Improve Profitability

            One measure is the inventory turnover as it may guide managers on how to detect problems in marketing or product quality.  Inventory turnover can be seen in the order cost driver especially if Peterson would adopt flexible manufacturing systems such as lean and mean production.  Another is the common-size analysis where overspending in one activity can be compared to the overall revenues and its contribution to the value of the firm.  As a result, activities can be controlled to prevent excessive cost accumulation if it is proved to have minimal contribution.       

 

            Third asset turnover can show how efficient Peterson in using its assets that it can justify any large amount in cost drivers.  When activities are inefficient, cost drivers can indicate the differences between production periods for comparison.  Fourth, collection ratio (e.g. debtor and creditor days) can protect the working capital of Peterson and prevent it from going bankrupt.  In this ratio, cost drivers can indicate how the company must prepare to borrow at times of crisis to be able to continue activities without delay or any disruption.  Alternatively, Peterson can compare the contribution (e.g. outputs) of each activity to the total value of the firm and hence can prioritize in times of recession.         

 

IX. Limitations of ABC Approach

            Like other costing methods, ABC is not compatible to all firms with dissimilar structures and strategies (e.g. in labor-intensive industries or those having limited products) ( 2002).  Another is the problems and difficulties that may arise in its adoption by a first-timer where costs and human resistance impede integration, therefore, results to several costing failures and even operational delays.  Lastly, ABC does not have all theoretical support and sometimes conflict with other well-established accounting principles that many practitioners are limited and even anxious in using the technique.  Many protagonists in costing are also emphasizing that all techniques are within the boundaries of individual risk and cost preferences of firms such that product cost distortions may be seen as normal variances that firms must confront.     

 

Bibliography

Electronic Sources

CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION IN BAY APPAREL LIMITED

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION IN BAY APPAREL LIMITED

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

            Conflict inevitably arises in the workplace because of the individual uniqueness in perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and behavior of the different members of the organization. These differences may catalyze non-accommodation of other peoples’ beliefs resulting to misunderstandings or even to violence. Differences that lead to conflict may be based on personal or work related differences. Personal conflicts in the workplace can range from personality clashes such as one employee preferring a quiet work environment while another employee works best with music to attitude problems such as an employee spreading rumors against another employee that irritates the person subject of the rumor and even to personal hygiene such as an employee who declines to consider personal cleanliness or neatness in the workplace that irks another employee. Work related conflict can results from competition in promotions with one candidate holding the belief that the person promoted is less qualified then he is or cutting in line in the queue to use the photocopy machine or the differences in opinion on the perceived effective means of accomplishing a group or collaboration project. The negative consequences of these conflict situations then adversely affect the aggregate operations and performance of the business firms so that the decisive action or intervention by the organization to a potential or actual conflict is necessary.

            However, not all business firms have the capability or competency to deal with conflict either because of the perception of the conflict as non-significant or the lack of tools or means to address the problem. In some instances, the organization even becomes aware of the conflict when this already arises instead of preventing workplace conflict.  

 

Executive Summary

            Conflict is an inevitable occurrence in all organizations and it is the efficiency in the application of conflict resolution methods and processes that determines the degree of optimization that the company derives from conflict resolution.

            There are different types of conflict based on the nature of the conflict, parties involved and scope of conflict. Under the nature of the conflict are relational and task conflict. Relational conflict comes from differences in individual values and perspectives of the parties involved such as religious beliefs and work attitude while task conflict pertains to differences in belief over the manner of accomplishing a task or addressing work problems. Generally, relational conflicts diminish organizational performance while task conflict enhances group performance. Relational conflict also influences task conflict. Under the parties involved are personal, intragroup and intergroup conflicts. These conflicts are neither good nor bad per se because it is the result that determines this. Under the scope of the conflict are internal and external conflicts, with the former referring to conflict with the organization while external conflict involves conflict with parties not part of the organization. In Bay Apparel Limited, relational conflict, intragroup conflict and intergroup conflict, and internal and external conflict commonly occur.

            Generally, two sources of conflict arise, which are personal cognitive processes—such as discontent and resentment and organizational factors—lack of uniform standards for human resource management and conflict resolution. In Bay Apparel Limited, organizational factors dominate the causes of conflict because the difference in management systems of the US and HK groups catalyze conflict.

             Overall, conflict management methods include avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, and collaboration. These apply depending upon the context of the conflict situation. In the case of Bay Apparel Limited, the most apparent method used is competition that involves pitting one perspective over another and derivation of a winning perspective. While this works in situations requiring the provision of strong support for competing perceptions. The utilization of this method alone leads to the discontent of members whose opinions always lose out that could affect cooperation or participation in group tasks.

            Thus, while the current organizational system of Bay Apparel Limited successfully addresses interpersonal conflict and external conflict, the company needs to improve its methods in meeting intragroup and intergroup conflict to derive optimum results from its working groups. This could be achieved through the context-based utilization or combination of the methods as well as the establishment of a common core management strategy for the company to dispel employee perceptions of management strategy disparity.

Literature Review

Organizational Conflict

Conflict pertains to the perceived or actual difference that may influence outcomes or actions believed to be important (2003). This implies that conflict is based on the manner that differences are perceived and acted upon by individuals in human relations. Overall, conflict involves six elements. First is its inevitability since there will always be disagreements arising from individual unique characters. Second is the nature of conflict as not classifiable under the dichotomy of good or bad because it is the consequence of the conflict that determines the goodness or badness of the conflict. Concurrently, this element involves the determinants danger and opportunity. Danger results to bad results while opportunity to resolve conflict leads to good results. Third is conflict as a process of constantly making choices on the next step of dealing with differences. Fourth is conflict as requiring the exercise of energy whether action is taken or not because of the continuous process of decision-making. Fifth is the existence of feeling and content because conflict involves not only the reason for the conflict but also the emotions that arise in the situation. Sixth is the character of conflict as swaying from proactive to active. More proactive individuals have a lesser propensity to be involved in violence while a reactive person would likely become violent in the situation. (2000)

Types of Conflict

In the case of organizations, a number of conflict classifications arise.  (1990) found that organizational conflict has task related and relational aspects.  (1997) proposed that organization conflict fall under affective—linked to interpersonal relationships or substantive conflict—related to the group task or project.

Relative to the influence of conflict on the organization, (1992) provides that the members of the group differentiate between relational and work related conflict and the occurrence of one over the other have different effects and there is an adverse relationship between relational conflict and productivity as well as group satisfaction Relational conflicts meddle in the accomplishment of tasks because the members of the group become engrossed with the minimization threats, the maximization of power, and the efforts to develop cohesion instead of targeting the demands of the task.(1999) add that relational conflict diminishes interpersonal understanding and goodwill among the group members that prevents the efficient completion of the task If most of the time is spent on dealing with interpersonal aspects instead of on the informational and technical aspects of decision-making then task completion suffers. Moreover, the conflict also makes members of the group irritable, resentful, negative or uncooperative. In serious relational problems group functioning worsen. 

In considering the different types of conflicts based on the parties involved. Conflicts can involve two individuals, members of a group, organizational units, or organizations. Again, the conflict may be relational or work related.

            Interpersonal conflict refers to the evident struggle arising between a minimum of two interdependent parties perceiving differing goals, scarcity of resources, and other party interference relative to the opinions of others. The definition means that there are several factors intervening in the conflict. One is the express nature of the clash in perception differences so that there is communication between or among the parties. Another is the intervention of perceptions in the cognitive processes of the parties, which means that based on their perception there are differences in their respective perspectives that may even be conflicting. ( 1991)

Intragroup conflict pertains to the conflict arising within a work group that involves any two or more members.  (1995) provide two kinds of intragroup conflict, which are task and relational conflicts. Task conflict refers to the perceptions over the disagreement existing among different individual group members regarding the content of group decisions or actions and encompassing differences in views, ideas and opinions. In the course of group discussions, members of the group may differ in opinion over the manner of allocating resources, procedures to use, and understanding of facts. Relationship conflict in intragroup relations finds expression through animosity and annoyance emanating from differences in personal taste, familial values, and even religious beliefs.

            These forms of intragroup conflict have personal and organization consequences. As shown in the study by  (2001), relational conflict negatively affects the affective reactions of group members such as trust and satisfaction.  (1997) proved that relational conflict affects the work climate or environment and decreases the team effectiveness. Task conflict relates positively to quality in ideas emanating from the members of the group and the innovativeness of the various group members (1996).. (1999) adds that task conflict leads to the prevalence of constructive debate with the group members airing and defending their respective views and ideas that could result to the acceptance of group decisions (1996) as well as the aversion of groupthink (1994)

            Thus, intragroup conflict is not detrimental to the organization per se because the negative effect depends upon the type of conflict occurring. If the group experiences relational conflict, this could adversely affect the performance of the entire group but if the group feels the existence of task conflict, this could lead to improved group output.

            Intergroup conflict pertains to the infractions among individuals and groups emanating from the dynamics of intergroup interdependence, political determinism and diversity (2003). This indicates that intergroup conflict pertains to the manner that individual members of a group or different groups deal with their interdependence such as the necessity of consulting the other members of group in decision-making, directing the actions of the other members or influencing the movement of the group, and the differences among the individual members and between the groups.

            Moreover, intergroup conflict emanates from the spillage effect of both interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict (1991). This means that personal differences can translate into intergroup differences in instances when the interpersonal issues of members of a group or different groups become intertwined with intergroup dynamics.

Sources of Conflict

            Generally, there are common sources of conflict among different people. Most of the time conflicts arise when a person feels that his comfort zone has been violated. A comfort zone pertains to the limit of a person over acceptable or safe factors. Conflict arises when the person feels that the comfort zone has been violated or when the person is forced to move outside of the comfort zone limits. The initial emotions or feelings that the person feels upon the violation of or movement away from the comfort zone constitute conflict. (2003) The degree of emotions experienced by the person during this time then determines the extent of conflict expression or response. This means that conflict comes from the manner that a person internally processes deviations in emotional and intellectual state.

            Another common source of conflict is the feeling dissatisfaction resulting from being dissatisfied or unsatisfied about work place factors. When these feelings results to discomfort, conflict may arise. ( 2003)

            All forms of sources of conflict are explained by the natural propensity of people to return to the original state of contentment. This tendency is referred to as homeostasis or the state of balance where individuals derive contentment and satisfaction. The tendency can translate to the resolution of the conflict or resistance to resolution. (2003) There are instances in interrelationships when deviating from the status could result to an improvement in performance and well-being that leads to creation of a different point of equilibrium. These sources of conflict could either improve or diminish the state of the individual and this could also lead to organizational conflict.

Results & Analysis

 

Organizational Conflict

 

In the case of Bay Apparel Limited, there are three major two types of conflict encompassing both relational and work related conflict, which are regional conflict arising between the US and HK teams, interdepartmental conflict arising between or among the different working departments, and employee-employer conflict arising between the employees and the top management of the company.

The relational conflict between the US and HK teams arise from the differences cause by a language barrier and cultural variance that affects their management practices that results to conflict when one team asserts its management practice over the other that poses resistance to the imposition. Relational conflict between the US and HK teams arise in decision-making on cost and price. Hong Kong is in charge of production, merchandising and sampling while US team takes charge of marketing, design and customer service. The work-related conflict exists when the HK team prioritizes cost efficiency while the US team highlights design and marketability that may involve higher costs.

In Hong Kong, a bureaucratic mode of management is applied that results to low levels of transparency.  Due to this organizational management style, conflicts often arise between the merchandising and servicing departments when the servicing department cannot keep up with the processing of documents by the merchandising department or the merchandising department does not deliver it reports on time for to facilitate speedy processing. The conflict arising between the two departments of Hong Kong Bay Apparel Limited constitutes work-related issues.

            The conflict between the employees and top management constitutes work-related differences. Employees hold the perception that their compensation and contributions constitute an amount relative to their US office counterparts. They feel undervalued, unrecognized and unfairly treated. Some of the policies of the HK office are also disliked especially with regard to the performance based solely on sales so that top grossing teams hold more favor with top management but other circumstances are not considered so that the high sales may not even be due to the efforts of the team but due to shifts in the market or decisions made by the US office that influences the performance of the HK team. Top management on the other hand perceives its management style as effective in achieving the goals of the company so that it refuses to recognize the opinion of employees or disregard their perceptions all together. In the long run, employer-employee conflicts relating to human resource management issues would result to a decline in performance or increase in the cost of allaying the discontent of employees or letting go of old and hiring new employees who are mostly inexperienced.

In Bay Apparel Limited, external conflict also arises between the company and its vendors or suppliers covering price, quality, and delivery dates. The conflict arises due to the differences in the valuation of the two parties. The vendors or sellers may value their products with a higher amount relative to the offer of the company or the vendor may require more time to deliver products relative to the schedule of the company in meeting the needs of its consumers. In this instance, if each party sticks to their respective opinions, there is a possibility that they would not be able to reach an agreement resulting to the failure of the vendor to sell it products and the company to purchase products demanded by its US and international market.

Types of Conflict

            In the case of Bay Apparel Limited, there is no apparent interpersonal conflict between any two or more interdependent parties within the US and HK offices or between any one or more parties in the two offices. This means that there are no personal issues between and among any of the members of the organization that arise independently or cause other conflicts to arise. This works for the organization because interpersonal conflicts can be damaging to the company and permeate the accomplishment of tasks especially when the parties avoid conflict and fail to discuss their differences and worst blame each other for the work failures that may arise from their interpersonal conflict. The development of competition among parties engaged in interpersonal conflict could lead to violence to the detriment of the organization.

Sources of Conflict

            In Bay Apparel Limited, internal sources of conflict commonly affect the dynamics of organizational conflict such as in the area of 1) goal and time incompatibility; 2) overlapping authority; 3) task interdependencies; 4) evaluation and reward system incompatibility; 5) resource scarcity; and 6) inconsistencies in status. Goal and time incompatibility as a source of conflict is linked to the differences in the objectives of the US and HK group because of their different tasks as well as due to the management culture differences of the two groups. The US group applies western management strategies while the HK group applies bureaucratic management systems. Overlapping authority becomes a source of conflict when the managers of the US and HK group are not able to agree on what management direction to pursue, when the differences in opinion emanates from their personal values, beliefs and experiences on what works for the company. Task interdependencies create conflict when the US and HK group are following schedules but the completion of tasks depends upon the input or preliminary task completion because of the differing priorities of the two groups. If the groups are not able to effectively link their schedules, then conflict would probably arise with one group demanding the other to prioritize a task and the other group believing that their schedule works better. Incompatibility in evaluation and reward system becomes a source of conflict when the members of the different working groups compare human relations systems. The HK group feels undervalued and insufficiently rewarded from comparing the performance evaluation and reward system in HK and the US resulting to the preference for the US system. This creates resentment on the part of the HK group towards top management in the HK office and even towards the US group for offering an HRM system that the HK group perceives to be better than their system. Resource scarcity creates conflict when the HK or US group develops the perception that the other group gets a bigger share of resources and this exceeds their resources needs when the other group is struggling with its share. Inconsistencies in status support the development of conflict in instances when there are differences in the perception of one group over the relative status of the other group. In the case of the HK group, it holds the perception that the US group considers the HK group as holding a lower status because their recommendations and reports were not given sufficient consideration.

            Regardless of whether the perceptions of the US and HK group or the individual members are based on facts and actual events, the relative differences in perception still creates conflict. Based on the information provided by the HK group, the six organizational factors are deemed as the sources of conflict for the company.  
Conflict Management Strategies

            (1974) introduced a relationship dynamics that also constitute methods for organizational conflict resolution. The first method is avoidance, which involves dodging or denial of the conflict. This applies best in instances that involve insignificant issues, incorrect timing or parties who are emotionally charged. The resolution is delayed but when this reoccurs as a significant and timely issue with the parties capable of rational thought, then other modes of conflict management applies.

The second method is accommodation, which involve one party disregarding personal issue to satisfy the concerns of the other party. This method downplays differences to give way to harmony so that this applies best in instances when relationship preservation constitutes the priority. However, if this method is overused, parties may experience repressed anger or resentment from sacrificing their perceptions for another’s welfare. 

The third method is competition, which pertains to the advancement of one party’s concerns relative to the issues of the other party. This method works best in crisis situations where a decision needs to be made immediately. However, if used regularly the method would lead to dissatisfaction on the part of the other group members or groups because their perceptions are undervalued or ignored.

The fourth method is compromise that works in situations when the parties find leeway for giving up aspects of their position without entirely giving up their position in the conflict. This works in situations when finding a middle ground that is amenable to all parties is achievable.

The fifth method is collaboration, which involves the respect for the values, competencies and expertise of other parties in the conflict so that the parties cooperate towards the development of a resolution to the satisfaction of all the parties. This method promises effective results but applying this involves adequate time.

            Based on the characteristics of the conflict experienced by Bay Apparel Limited and the conflict management strategies discussed above, the common conflict management method arising between the US and HK groups is competition. This is expressed through the perception of the HK group that their reports and recommendations communicated to the US group are not being considered. If this is true, a difference in the report and recommendations of the US and HK groups results to the prioritization of the former of its reports and recommendations.

However, this may not necessarily be the intention of perception of the US group. It should be considered that the US group controls the decision over the designs to be manufactured or ordered by the Hong Kong office because it is in charge of marketing and sales to end consumers. It is then based on the design decision of the US group that the HK group identifies the best supplier and production deals to meet the design demands. This best supply deal may not necessarily be lead to optimum cost efficiency because of the consideration of the design demands. If the US group insists on designs different from the cost effective designs recommended by the HK group, this does not necessarily indicate that the US group ignores the reports of the HK group because it is just playing its role of determining marketable designs.

Since the insistence of the US group of its design decisions results to a negative perception on the part of the HK group that handles production cost decisions, there is need to consider other conflict resolution methods that addresses the concerns of the HK and US group to dispel any perceptions of unfair treatment or deviations in status.

Perhaps the best method for Bay Apparel Limited is collaboration that involves the cooperation and participation of the US and HK groups since the conflict require the clarification of the perceptions of the various groups. This is timely since the US group may be unaware of the perceptions of the HK group and the HK group may not know about the intentions of the US group. Moreover, effective communications is also necessary to facilitate the conflict resolution process and clear up the issues arising between or among the parties.

In the case of intragroup and interpersonal conflict, collaboration still proves to be a fitting resolution method since there is need for conflicting parties to meet and discuss the issues. The top management of the HK office may not be aware of the sentiments of the employees over their unfair treatment and undervaluation when comparing the HRM systems in the US and in HK. Without knowledge of the sentiments, top management may misinterpret the conflict as a renege on the part of the employees and suppress their communication efforts instead of addressing HRM concerns.

With regard to the conflict arising between the HK group and vendors/suppliers, the conflict resolution method applicable is competition because of the nature of the market. The clothing manufacturing industry in China including Hong Kong is highly competitive because of the number of production firms. This means that the HK group can utilize competition to gain a supply agreement that involves the least possible cost to the company for the same quality. However, in the case of conflicts on the quantity and delivery dates, compromise may be the best mode of settling differences because of the common goal of the parties to meet the quota and schedule. The supplier seeks to meet quantity demands within a particular period to fulfill the contract while the HK group also seeks to meet the quota and schedule to meet market demand. This common goal could constitute the middle ground from which to facilitate the resolution of the conflict.

Negotiation

            In conflict resolution, the process of negotiation applies because of the need to communicate concerns and determine the ways of resolving the conflict. Negotiation pertains to the process involving the efforts of conflicting parties to resolve issues, agree on courses of action, bargain with the other party either for individual or group advantage, and develop solutions amenable to all parties involved. Negotiation implies two things: which are 1) the parties hold a common purpose and 2) there arises differences between or among the parties. The purpose of engaging in negotiation is to arrive at a mutually satisfying compromise. ( 1993) This benefits organizations experiencing imminent or actual conflicts.

            In the case of Bay Apparel Limited, there is yet no indication that negotiations are underway to settle the causes of organizational conflict. This implies a number of things based on the opinions of the HK group members. First is that the organization is not completely aware of the conflict together with the issues, causes, and parties involved so that resolution is impossible to commence. Second is the lack of mechanisms for conflict resolution based on best practices. This is expressed by the inability of the organization to identify potential conflict areas and arrest these causes before a full blown conflict arises. Third is the lack of a common organizational management system that applies to the US and HK group. This finds expression in the different management styles of the two groups coupled with the perception of the HK group that the US group experiences a more employee friendly HRM system relative to the system in Hong Kong. This makes it more difficult to resolve conflicts since there is no established common ground for the issues raised by the parties.

Conclusion & Recommendations to Management

            A consideration of the theoretical and empirical data on organizational conflict and conflict management together with the experiences of Bay Apparel Limited shows that the company needs to improve its conflict resolution management systems to prevent and appropriately address the conflict experienced by the company and prevent any potential conflicts that may arise.

            Based on the consideration of examples of conflict experienced by Bay Apparel Limited, these show that there is little interpersonal conflict arising within the organization. This implies two positive things for the company, one is the minimal contribution of personal differences to organizational conflict and the other is the conflict are mostly qualified as task related. Minimal interpersonal problems mean that the members of the US or HK groups are able to optimize working relations that results to better communication and participation. Minimal personal conflicts mean that the problems experienced by Bay Apparel Limited are task related, which is good since studies have shown that task conflicts result to exchange of ideas and innovation.

            The nature of the task conflict involving the US and HK group and the HK group with vendors/suppliers indicates that the need for the determination of context-based conflict resolution methods applied depending upon the situation. In the conflict between the US and HK group collaboration best applies because of the need for the participation of the US and HK groups and their cooperation in clarifying the issues. Moreover, the global operations of the company require the establishment of a mode of communications able to support the clarification of issues. In addition, the organization also needs to establish a corporate culture that commonly applies to the entire organization to dispel any perceptions of bias or unfair treatment when the core management system of US and HK group differs. Although, the management of the groups should comply with the business setting where these operate, the essence of a global company is to adopt a common core management system but flexibly applied in various business environments. Thus, for Bay Apparel Limited to become a successful international retail company, it should be able to establish its core management system and develop a standard for conflict resolution based on best practices derived from its own experiences and the experiences of other companies in the same industry.  

 

 

 

Appendix

 

Interview Questions

Relational or Task Conflict

1. Do you experience conflict in the workplace?

2. How often do you experience conflict in the workplace?

3. Who are the parties involved in the conflict?

4. What are the reasons for the conflict?

5. Describe the working relationships that cause conflict?

Job Satisfaction

5. How satisfied are you with your task assignments? Explain.

6. How satisfied are you with management systems? Explain.

7. How satisfied are you with group participation? Explain.

8. How satisfied are you with your current working environment? Explain.

Propensity for Leaving the Company

9. What organizational or management changes would you recommend? Why?

10. Do you think that change is possible in the present management of the company? Why?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Movement between Care Environments

Movement between Care Environments

This paper discusses the effects of moving between care environments on care recipients specifically in the case of elderly people. It also suggests ways on how the carers could help them with such conditions.   

 

The task of caring for the disabled and elderly relatives at home has been occurring for a long period of time. With the aging of the population more and more people are compelled to care for their frail and elderly relatives. The elderly is one of the age groups in need of long term health services. Carers are the ones who look after the welfare of these individuals. They provide regular and sustained assistance without payment.

Care giving responsibilities are often described in terms of the burden they can cause. Because of this, family care givers make use of community services such as adult day care centers and respite care. Care givers can take a break from providing care to their care receiver through this respite care. In such case, a companion can stay with the care receiver for a few hours or as preferred by the care giver. This gives the care giver the opportunity to attend with other matters. More so, it reduces the stress and burden on the part of the care giver.

 The care receiver can also participate in adult care program where he/she is given the opportunity to socialize with other peers in a supervised environment. This arrangement allows the care receiver to participate in an environment other that he/she is familiar with. Even so, it is important that the proper home setting is chosen for the care recipient. If the care receiver chooses to remain in his/her home, modifications must be done such as railings, etc. However, if the person cannot remain in the home, alternative arrangements are needed ( 2005). While this effort can ease the burden on the side of the care giver, movement to care environments may have some implications to the care receiver.

Elders that are placed in overnight respite are commonly institutionalized. One possibility for the increase in institutionalization is that overnight respite serves as a bridge for placement for caregivers that helps them to relinquish the care of their care receivers. Essentially, care givers are satisfied with the benefits of respite care to themselves and to the care recipient. There are some evidences showing the improvement in the behavioral problems of some patients. Adult day care programs also have salutary effects to the participants which may increase with continued use. Care recipients are less likely to experience confusion. In fact their moods improved as well as their well being ().

            In seeking for an alternative living arrangement for the care receiver, one needs to consult with the physician first. This step is important to determine which type of care facility is suited for the care receiver. It is also ideal that the care receiver and the family preview the facility before deciding to move to the care environment. This will give the opportunity to discuss feelings about the decision.

            One way to help the recipient cope with the new environment is to develop the relationship with them. Since the period of transition affects the care receiver significantly, it is important that the carer make them feel they are cared for. They must also have a preparation before leaving the health environment they have learned to trust and depended upon so that the transition can be undertaken smoothly.

            Another coping mechanism is to encourage the care receivers to elicit a level of independence. Elderly people who are cared for are often regarded as incompetent. This pre conceived notion fosters dependent behavior among the elderly. This case often occurs in nursing institutions which is why mortality rates have tend to increase. The imposition of dependent behavior is likely to become a disabling support rather than an enabling support. With this, it can be argued that the expectation of the disability becomes a disabling of oneself. The helpless behavior to the elderly adheres to the stereotyping and dependent behaviors.

            The psychological well being of an individual plays a significant role in the preservation of physical health and functional capacity. The lack of or decrease in social support increases the mortality and morbidity rates of elderly people and decreases the adherence to health promoting routines. Moving from a familiar surrounding to a nursing home or institution can increase the mortality rates. Studies show that death rates are likely to increase within the first three months after the lost of a spouse (1996).

            A sense of helplessness in elderly people also showed a decrease in responsiveness, motivation and self esteem which eventually leads to increase in illness, mortality rates and memory problems. Research has also shown that the increased contact with helping professionals strengthen the sense of helplessness. Giving the elders an opportunity to increase control over their environment leads to improved health and decreased mortality. In one study, the alterations that increase the control in the environment in a nursing home demonstrated that even the small changes can have profound effect ( 1996).

            Moreover, aging cannot be equated with complete dependence or the lack of reliance to others. There must be a sustained balance between dependence and independence. Carers then must be sensitive to the fact that it is the individual who choose the level of dependence. Researchers argue that when people believe that the range of physical abilities is declining, they restrict the individual freedom of the elderly. Such restrictions lead to the reinforcement of dependence ( 1996).

            There are a number of implications for the carers who works with the elderly people. First, they need to examine their own attitudes towards aging and elderly people. They can also involve the elderly people in determining what programs are needed in designing, implementing and managing programs. The failure of elderly people to make significant changes in their health is often a result of the barriers in the society that blocks successful changes. Stereotypes may prevent the elderly from initiating change or may prevent them even before they start. Important synergies can also be achieved by altering the social and physical environment of the care receiver and the care giver.

 

 

 

 

ESSAY

Fraud in Dante’s Inferno

The Inferno is a divine comedy which narrated Dante’s journey to God, and is made up of Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. Dante was in the middle of his life when he became lost in the metaphor of dark woods which is sin. He met Virgil who claimed to be sent by Beatrice to lead him to salvation. Virgil led her to hell which she according to her will get them to the paradise.

In hell, different kinds of sins committed by humans are punished in gruesome means. One of which is the act of treachery or fraud. The sinners are grouped based on the act of fraud they have committed. The multitude of acts related to fraud and treachery means that indeed men are capable of deceiving their fellow human beings in various degrees and ways.

In the eight circle, the fraudulent or those guilty of deliberate knowing evil are located in a circle called the Malebolge divided into ten enclosures. Virgil and Dante where taken on a terrifying ride in which different kinds of fraud are punished on ten different enclosures. In the first, naked sinners are being whipped by demons. He saw people who are panders and seducers who use fraud in matters of love. The second consisted of flatterers swamped in a stew of excrement. In the third, simonists are stuck upside down in the rock with their feet set on fire. Astrologers, diviners and magicians are in the fourth enclosure. They are punished by having their heads held backwards. Such distortion of humanity saddened Dante. On the other hand, the lake of hot pitch is where the barrators are flung into. Dante was almost thrown in by the devil but they have discreet fully left ( 2007).

            However, the irate devils pursued Dante and they went into safety at the sixth enclosure where hypocrites are made to wear heavy robes. Dante and Virgil had a hard time reaching the seventh enclosure and when they did, they witnessed thieves being beaten by serpents. After which, they are transformed to serpents themselves. The eight enclosure consisted of fraudulent counselors who are inflamed. The succeeding pouch was horrifying as sowers of scandal were mutilated with a sword. Among them is the founder of Islam and his nephew who happens to be a leader of a heretical order. The last pouch composed of three groups of falsifiers. Among them are alchemists plagued by leprosy and impersonators that are insane ( 2007).

One of the acts of fraud which is punished in Dante’s inferno was depicted in the Tempest by Shakespeare. In the Tempest, Prospero has created the storm to battle Alonso and his company. Prospero was once the duke of Milan but was banished to the island with his daughter Miranda by his brother Antonio who took over his dukedom of Milan. It was Prospero’s magic that conjured up the storm which the ship is experiencing and Miranda tried to dissuade his father. She felt the pain and the regrets of Alonso and his company that are likely to be bashed when the ship breaks up.

            Prospero told his daughter he was once a Duke of Milan and begun explaining to her why they were exiled on the island. He explained that he entrusted matters of his state to his brother Antonio whilst he followed his love for art and reading. Unfortunately for him, Antonio turned his subordinates against him and had them exiled. Antonio then made a pact with the King of Naples be loyal to King Alonso. As Antonio became an ally to the King of Naples, Prospero and Miranda were evicted from Milan by rushing them to a boat which is thought to be unsafe for them ( 2005).

Eventually, Antonio convinces Sebastian to kill the King of Naples. He told him that he has strong imagination seeing the crown of his brother falling on his head. And that he can see him replacing his brother as the king. Sebastian was a t first reluctant but was gradually convinced by Antonio by guaranteeing him that the King’s men will follow him. He further pointed out that he had experience at this since he made the same thing to his brother Prospero ( 2005).

Citing the fraudulent act committed by Antonio to his own brother lead to the conclusion that men are capable of deceiving even their own family. It also depicted the desire for power as the main motivation to commit such acts of treachery. Even if the sin may appear minor, Dante’s Inferno shows that all sins have their equivalent punishment and that they are far more horrifying than one can ever imagine. Indeed the imagery used in the Divine Comedy is dreadful that saddened Dante himself. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight depict horrible imagery as that of Dante’s Inferno. In the passage, Sir Gawain hit the Green Knight with an ax causing his head to cut off and roll on the floor. However, the Green Knight picked his head and told Sir Gawain to find him. Everybody believed that the journey of Gawain will be of no return due to the harsh conditions he will encounter ( 2007).

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References

 

RESEARCH PROPOSAL: HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT EVALUATION

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM) EVALUATION: THE ROLE OF EMPLOYEE TRAINING PROGRAMS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMEs in UK

 

RATIONALE

The workplace today is in a state of metamorphosis with contemporary issues such as customer satisfaction, competitive advantage, revenue and expenditures, organisational culture, technological advancement, global markets, diverse customer demands and need for effective workforce with a global mindset penetrating every aspect of the organisation. Effective workforce is crucial as it is the organisation’s primary player in accomplishing goals and delivering service. According to  and  (2004) a firm’s human resource management (HRM) practices and the kind of workforce help attain organisational competitiveness (). HRM is the organisational function that enhances creativity, innovation, speed, flexibility, and efficiency of the workforce to transform them into organisational assets. Human resource management is now highly recognised as a strategic lever for the organisation in creating value.

Basically, this paper discusses in detail the research proposal that examines the significant effectiveness of training programs to SMEs in UK. The researcher attempts to identify whether the training programs employed by most SMEs in UK has significant impact to their progress. This includes discussion of its history, the current status of employee training programs, and its relationship to the business development. Specifically, this proposed research explores the perceptions of employee respondents and their view regarding the effectiveness of the said training programs.   

            This research proposal discusses in detail the background (literature review). Moreover, the objectives of the study and the research questions are presented. Here, vital concepts, questions and assumptions are stated. Finally, the scope and limitation of the study, overview of the methodology used, the significance of the research and definition of terms are discussed.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

At the turn of the century, human resources managers will have to face new challenges. The economy and markets are different from those of a decade ago. As paradigms have changed, the characteristics affecting human resources management must also be revised such as organisational structure and functions in order to keep up to pace with relevance, latest trends and strategies. In today’s fast and technological modern world, the challenge that the Information Man faces is time’s nature of putting things in order and in place in the best and most effective way. Life has changed since the invention of the computer which dictated man to deal with things in the most efficient way possible. In the world of big international business industries where transactions and other business operations are governed by law, cultural differences and mutual trust, efficiency counts largely as a common entrepreneurial aim.

             and  (1995) state that human resource management is a system that attracts, strengthens, encourages, and maintains employees who are responsible for the successful functioning and survival of the organisation and its members (). The key functions and components of Human Resource Management are manpower planning, recruitment and selection, employee motivation, employee performance evaluation, industrial relations, employee services and employee training, development and education ( 2006).

 

Principles of Training and Development

The training function of human resource management is contemporarily termed as human resource development. It is a systematic effort to facilitate employee acquisition of present and future job-related knowledge, skills, and attitudes or assist them to correct any shortcomings in their performance ( 2002, ).  and  (1998) reports that training and development of people within an organisation refer to the advancement of skills, knowledge, and competencies, and the improved behaviour of people for both their personal and professional interests. This revolves around three areas – individual employee development, career development and performance improvement. Individual employee development follows seven laws: (1) the learning specialist must know the training program, lesson, subject, theories and skills to be taught; (2) the trainee/employee must be interested in the program; (3) the language used in the program must be understood by both learning specialist and trainee; (4) the learning specialist must fully explain the skills and information to be mastered to ensure total understanding; (5) the teaching and learning process must be interesting so that the trainee would be motivated to grasp the important information; (6) the learning process must help the trainee to comprehend new ideas in a manner that can trigger actions based on them; and (7) the results of the individual employee development must be observed in reproduction or application of skills and information that have been transferred to the trainee. Secondly, training and development revolves around the philosophical commitment to the professional advancement of people comprising the organisation through career development. Its key objective is to help employees analyse their abilities and interests to better match personnel needs for growth and development to organisational needs. Human resource management practitioners must be able to identify the factors in maintaining a successful career development program; incorporate each these factors into the career development program; determine their general responsibilities relative to career development and their specific responsibilities to their employer and the organisation; discover methods for improving harmony between the individual and the organisation in relation to career development; and put into practice career development outcomes to the organisational setting. Finally, training and development must be aimed at performance improvement to help the organisation attain stronger organisational efficiency, greater competitive practices, and enhanced profitability. This can be done through collaborative efforts between top level management, managers, supervisors and employees in goal setting, action planning, implementation, monitoring, taking corrective action, making changes in organisational culture, technology and management styles, and continuous learning ().

 

Performance Evaluation

HRM also facilitates the performance evaluation of staff in order for the organisation to take account of its manpower and assess its contributions to organisational goals. Specific reasons for conducting performance evaluation are: to strengthen overall organisational performance by improving the individual performance; to identify existing potential which can be utilised to either handle future higher position vacancies or other jobs for a better use of the abilities; and to provide a fair method of relating compensation to performance where there are no numerical criteria. HRM personnel are responsible for the following activities: adapting the evaluation system to the distinct organisational culture and environment; informing higher management of the principles and objectives governing the evaluation system; soliciting the participation and cooperation of appraisers and those to be appraised; assisting the management in setting the objective standards of evaluation which may include the identification of targets for achievement, introduction of self-assessment, and elimination of complexity and duplication; explaining the purposes and uses of the activity to the general staff; organising and establishing the necessary training of managers and supervisors who will conduct actual appraisals; and monitoring the entire undertaking to ensure that it flows accordingly ( 2006). In addition, human resource management is responsible in seeing to it that organisational policies and procedures adhere to labour and social laws.  (1998) claims that the human resource management function upholds employee aspirations in light of societal and labour laws and at times is obliged to intervene when employees run into difficulties personally and professionally; serves as the organisation's conscience by verbalising any violations in the organisational values and ethics; and treats people with kindness, respect and affection ().  (2002) elaborates that human resource management personnel inform the management on the details of existing employment contracts and emerging trends and how to comply with them; administer the just implementation of wages and salaries; maintain the consistency of employer practices with definite policies; and implement an employee “voice mechanism” for complaints and grievances to reach the management (). Furthermore, HRM entails the provision of benefits and services to enhance the general welfare of the employees and maintain their level of performance and productivity. These benefits include sick leave, access to a medical consultant, sick pay, special leave, rehabilitation of injured and disabled staff, financial provision for work-related physical activities such as sports, cafeteria and catering facilities, financial or moral aid for employees during difficult times, pre-retirement courses and first aid trainings (2006). Finally, HRM is concerned with employee training, development and education through a career development program and human resource development.  (2006) states that training, development and education is done for various reasons which include improving performance when performance appraisal indicates it, setting a standard to measure the congruence of the level of improvement with performance improvement, and ensuring the proper administration of the firm’s succession planning that assists employees to be eligible for role changes. Employees undergo training, development and education to augment job satisfaction, employee morale and motivation, enhance the efficiency of organisational processes, attain financial gain, strengthen the employees’ capability to handle new technologies and procedures, encourage innovation and strategies, lessen employee turnover, improve company image, and establish risk management strategies.

 

 

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The primary objective of this study is to examine and determine the perception of the employee respondents regarding the effectiveness of training programs in their current SME company. To address this objective, the researcher explores the nature of training and HRM practices: its benefits and advantages to different employees.

            Apparently, a survey to be conducted to SME employees aimed to determine their perception towards the current training scheme in their respective company/organisation. Furthermore, an interview will be also conducted to know what are their problems and concerns regarding training programs. Finally, this research comes up with pertinent findings, and provides insightful recommendations on training programs in relation to the development of SMEs in UK.

HYPOTHESIS

The study would like to test the following null hypothesis:

“The level of effectiveness of employee training as part of human resource management of SME managers significantly affects the general efficiency of the organisation.”

 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Generally, the purpose of this study is to conduct a study on the quality of training programs of SMEs in UK and identify the perception of the employees to quality training. This study tries to answer the following queries:

1.                  What are the employees’ perceptions regarding the training programs in their respective companies?

2.                  What are the variables that significantly affect the perception of the employees regarding training programs?

3.                  What are the advantages and disadvantages of employing a training program in SMEs in UK?

4.                  Is there any significant difference between the perception of the respondents regarding training programs and company development?

 

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The study intends to investigate the level of effectiveness of the employee training programs in most SMEs in UK. For this study, primary research and secondary research will be used. Primary research will be conducted using anonymous questionnaires that will be sent to selected employees of SMEs in UK. The questionnaires will be used to collect quantitative data and the interviews will be used to provide qualitative insights into the data collected.

The data will be analysed and compiled for the correlation of the hypothesis. The data will then be presented by means of graphical representations and illustration and the difference would be highlighted. A negative correlation between the variables would suggest that the hypothesis is null, that is, the level of effectiveness of training programs significantly affects the general efficiency of the organisation.

 

POSSIBLE CONTENTS OF DISSERTATION

The dissertation shall be divided into five chapters in order to provide clarity and coherence on the discussion of the effectives of training programs in most SMEs in UK. The first part of the dissertation will be discussing the problem uncovered by the researcher and provide ample background on the topic. The chapter shall constitute an introduction to the whole dissertation, the hypothesis, and the statement of the problem in order to present the basis of the study. Moreover, the chapter shall also have a discussion on the scope of its study as well as the significance of the study to society in general and specific effects on the management of firms.

The second chapter shall be discussing the relevance of the study in the existing literature. It shall provide studies on effective employee training programs, human resource management and performance management. After the presentation of the existing related literature, the researcher shall provide a synthesis of the whole chapter in relation to the study.

The third part of the study shall be discussing the methods and procedures used in the study. The chapter shall comprise of the presentation of the utilised techniques for data collection and research methodology. Similarly, it shall also contain a discussion on the used techniques in data analysis as well as the tools used to acquire the said data.

The fourth chapter shall be an analysis on the tabulated data. After the said tabulation, the data are statistically treated in order to uncover the relationship of the variable involved in the study. With the said data, the chapter seeks to address the statement of the problem noted in the first chapter.

The last chapter shall comprise of three sections, the summary of the findings, the conclusions of the study, and the recommendations. With the three portions, the chapter shall be able to address the verification of the hypothesis stated in the initial chapters of the study.

 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION

Research requires an organised data gathering in order to pinpoint the research philosophies and theories that will be included in the research, the methodology of the research and the instruments of data interpretation. In this study, the Research Process “Onion” will be utilised so that the findings of the study can be thoroughly established. The inner part of the onion describes the methodology portion whereas the outer part discusses the strategies that can be utilised in interpreting the results of the findings.

The descriptive research method uses observation and surveys. In this method, it is possible that the study would be cheap and quick. It could also suggest unanticipated hypotheses. Nonetheless, it would be very hard to rule out alternative explanations and especially infer causations. Thus, this study will use the descriptive approach. This descriptive type of research will utilise observations in the study.  To illustrate the descriptive type of research,  (1994) will guide the researcher when he stated: Descriptive method of research is to gather information about the present existing condition.  The purpose of employing this method is to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the cause/s of particular phenomena. The researcher opted to use this kind of research considering the desire of the researcher to obtain first hand data from the respondents so as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study.

The research described in this document is partly based on quantitative research methods. This permits a flexible and iterative approach. During data gathering the choice and design of methods are constantly modified, based on ongoing analysis. This allows investigation of important new issues and questions as they arise, and allows the investigators to drop unproductive areas of research from the original research plan.

This study also employs qualitative research method, since this research intends to find and build theories that would explain the relationship of one variable with another variable through qualitative elements in research. These qualitative elements does not have standard measures, rather they are behaviour, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs.

Furthermore, as we define the qualitative research it is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Accordingly, qualitative researchers deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

The primary source of data will come from interviews and anonymous questionnaires from employees of SMEs in UK.  The primary data frequently gives the detailed definitions of terms and statistical units used in the study. These are usually broken down into finer classifications.

The secondary sources of data will come from published articles from social science journals, theses and related studies on personnel management. Acquiring secondary data are more convenient to use because they are already condensed and organised. Moreover, analysis and interpretation are done more easily.

 

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Job analysis – This is the process of defining the work, activities, tasks, products, services, or processes performed by an employee. Well-defined jobs help the employees to systematise their performance; enhance communication because the employees know what they are supposed to do and can readily share ideas and knowledge; help managers to assess an applicant’s ability to perform the specific tasks of the job; make performance evaluation easier as the definition of tasks would determine what needs to be done and if the employee is able to do it;  establish relative skills levels among the jobs for compensation decisions; serve as the basis for needs analysis in training program development; and assist organisations to identify core functions that must be maintained and the skills required to carry out these functions when confronted with issues of workforce  reduction or expansion ( 1994, ).

Job description – Job description in an outline of the general functions and responsibilities of a specific position. Sometimes job descriptions also include the name of supervisor whom the position should report to, the qualifications required for the job, and salary range. Basically, job descriptions are utilised by the firm to advertise vacant and open positions, determine the appropriate compensation commensurate to the responsibilities of the job, and as a basis for performance evaluations ( 2006).

Job evaluation – Job evaluation is a practical process of breaking down jobs into specific tasks and helping employees to judge the size of a certain job in comparison to others. The process develops the foundation for internal ranking of jobs. The two primary methods of job evaluation are whole job ranking wherein jobs are ranked against each other in their entirety; and awarding points for various areas of the job such as education, training and experience. Job evaluation entails the assessment of jobs, not the people. It is a contributory factor for problem solving as it helps determine duplication of tasks and inconsistencies between jobs and specific functions ( 2005).

Performance appraisal – Performance appraisal is the process wherein supervisors evaluate an employee's performance to identify strengths and areas of improvement. Supervisors look into specific employee actions which may include volunteering for a task or activities that are not formally part of the job; taking extra effort/responsibility; suggesting improvements; displaying initiative; demonstrating functional participation; complying with organisational procedures, policies and rules; advocating organisational objectives; demonstrating loyalty and obedience, civic virtue, and conscientiousness; helping and cooperating with others; using the firm’s resources prudently; and demonstrating flexibility and problem-solving ability ( 2003, ). Performance appraisal provides an opportunity for the employees’ efforts to be recognised and thus improve their motivation. It also offers a chance for supervisors and staff to identify and agree on training needs as well as a basis for managers to assess the effectiveness of the recruitment and hiring strategies. Most importantly, performance appraisal assists employees and supervisors to adopt a new direction for better performance ( 2006).

Job Rotation – It is a management development practice wherein a person is moved through a series of assignments to provide him/her an opportunity to gain exposure to and experience the general operations of the firm as well as allow employees to thoroughly understand organisational processes and encourage greater job satisfaction through varied responsibilities. Job rotation among senior managers is a strategy of succession planning which is the process of developing a pool of people capable of assuming an existing job when necessary. For the lower management, job rotation answers the purposes of promotability or improvement of skills ( 2006).

Job Enlargement - Job enlargement is a process of extending the scope of a particular job through additional tasks that call for the same level of responsibilities and skills. It is facilitated to prevent boredom among employees. This strategy opposes the principles of specialisation and the division of labor wherein jobs are broken down into smaller units, each of which is performed repetitively by an employee. Some motivational theories claim that boredom and alienation through the routinary and repetitive performance advanced by division of labor can cause efficiency to weaken. Accordingly, job enlargement aims to motivate employees through additional tasks that do not greatly deviate from their current responsibilities. Some examples are replacement of assembly lines with modular work wherein a worker does not repeat the same step on every product; rather he/she handles numerous tasks on a single product ( 2007;  2006).

Job Enrichment - Job enrichment is a job redesign approach that expands individual jobs by adding more tasks and requiring other kinds of skills and competence to handle the additional tasks. The purpose is to fine tune the division of labor within the firm and improve organisational efficiency. Enriched jobs allow employees to realise their personal goals and evoke work behaviour congruent with the objectives of the firm. Job enrichment can correct ineffective work designs, enhance managerial control systems, abolish or lessen the need for labour, and intensify the work process ( 1986, ).

Job Satisfaction – Job satisfaction reflects the conscious attitudes toward one's job. Job satisfaction can be achieved through clear and just organisational policies; supervisors who appreciate employee efforts and outputs as well as guide ineffective performance; appropriate compensation for the job; a corporate culture that allows socialisation, camaraderie, and coordination; pleasant working conditions which include individual work areas, sufficient office supplies, ventilated office, and clean health and sanitary facilities; meaningful tasks; freedom to decide and carry out actions; and reward for loyalty and remarkable performance (, , &  1999).  and  (2004) claim that job satisfaction has been linked to critical organisational outcomes such as employee absenteeism, tardiness, intentions to turnover, actual turnover, job performance, organisational citizenship behaviour, burnout, physical and psychological well being, creativity, productivity, loyalty to company and life satisfaction ().

Management Development – Management development recognises the vitality of managers in the survival of the organisation. Thus, a program designed for the continuing education of managers on new management techniques, strategies and approaches is imperative. Contemporary management development programs make use of three approaches: one that focuses on the characteristics, knowledge, and experience of managers and attempts to provide special programs to address their needs; another underscores the improvement of managers as members of a class or a set of classes with overlapping membership; and the last emphasises a specific organisation which results to programs designed to enhance the functioning of a particular organisation, with a given manpower and resources faced with distinct situations and problems ( and  1998, ).

Career Planning – Career planning is a lifelong process of identifying, planning, pursuing and maintaining or changing a career. It entails choosing a specific occupation based on a person’s interests and skills, being employed for the job, developing within the job, changing careers when necessary and finally retiring. This process involves five steps. First, the person has to assess the kinds of interests, values, skills, knowledge, and developmental needs that he possesses and the work environment that he prefers. After these things are determined, the person has to explore all options available to him. These options may range from internships, volunteer works, academic materials, or full time employment. Afterwards, there is a need to identify possible jobs that the person can capably handle, assess the desirability of these jobs, analyse alternatives, and select short term and long term options. The fourth step requires the person to prepare for hiring requirements to the chosen job. Finally, the person has to successfully perform job requirements and learn everything that he can while on the job to maintain development of expertise which may be needed for future career plans and changes ( 2007).

 

 

REFERENCES:

 

Finance (analysis of investment activities)

INVESTMENT DECISION IN BASIC MATERIALS/ ALUMINUM INDUSTRY: ALCOA VERSUS ALCAN

 

Introduction

            Alcoa and Alcan are the selected NYSE-listed companies to be analyzed.  They are the top-two companies in terms of market capitalization and total revenues.  They are also among the leaders in short-term and long-term growth.  For these reasons, comparative analysis of financial position and performance is on relative equal-footing and the findings will allow potential investors to pursue a more lucrative portfolio.  Simply put, when Alcoa and Alcan are the sample companies, investors are assured that they are the benchmark within the market leader’s criteria.  It is also useful to note that the business experience of the two firms is also comparable as they are working and polishing the business and the industry as a whole as far as the mid-1880s.  Financial data are based on the recent Yahoo! Finance listings and 3-year financial statements of the two firms.          

 

I. Profitability

            Alcan exceeded Alcoa with 1.79 points in terms of return on stockholders equity (i.e. in general).  The former is more effective in allocating and using the funds of its shareholders.  This happened despite Alcoa’s big face value amount in its earnings in 2006.  One reason is the multiple growths in earnings of Alcan where Alcoa has only doubled the account.  This is concretized by the stable growth of their total equity.  It is also observable that financing activities of Alcoa is in continuous decline during the last three years while Alcan is on the reverse direction.  On the contrary, Alcoa is pouring its funds on investing activities.  In this view, Alcoa may be investing in underperforming or possible growth assets while Alcan is focusing on debt management.  As their performances are within the industry average, their difference on this specific ratio has insufficient investment basis.

 

            In terms of net profit margin, Alcan exceeded Alcoa by 0.16 of points.  The former has a larger margin that makes its total revenues more relevant to the bottom-line or the amount those investors especially shareholders can receive.  Although 2005 provided margin difficulties for both companies due to higher cost of business, they have managed to substantially improve their profit after income taxes (PAIT).  However, Alcan obtained the upper-hand because it succeeded to reduce its 2006 cost of sales with increasing sales.  Alcoa incurred rise in cost sales.  Even so, both companies exceeded the performance of the industry.  In terms of the profitability of regular operations, Alcoa overtook 1.39 points from Alcan because of the latter’s move to reduce interest payments for some uncertain motivation. 

 

            Investing wise, Alcoa is more profitable in its portfolio that Alcan garnering 0.51 points upper hand in return on total assets.  This is a useful finding because both companies have exhibited growth in PAIT, total assets and cash investments and proved that one company has more sound investment decision than the other.  Return on common equity, however, is higher for Alcan exceeding Alcoa with 0.80 points.  In conjunction with return on stockholder’s equity above, this upper hand of Alcan showed that even if its net return on assets is smaller, it assures that common shareholders (i.e. and preferred stock holders) will receive higher returns insensitive to underperforming investments.  This also indicated that Alcan can provide more returns to common stockholders even if preferred shareholders are prioritized.

 

            Earnings per share (EPS) has different scenario between in the two firms.  As observed in three-year computation, Alcoa has a more stable and growth of EPS while Alcan substantially jumped to $4.47 EPS in 2006 compared to $0.33 and $0.69 in the last two years.  This latter situation is possible for Alcan because it had a drastic increase in earnings in 2006 while Alcoa merely doubled this account.  Further, the number of common stockholders of Alcan is reduced from 2005 level to 2006 level by at least 5,000,000 outstanding shares.  The net effect, therefore, was stronger that affected EPS.  However, even with such substantial increase in EPS, Alcan has the same dividend pay-out ratio compared to Alcoa at 23%.  Therefore, Alcan afforded to invest a lot in 2006 due to increase in available operating cash than Alcoa.  Even if the dividend payout ratio is the same the share of Alcan shareholders to earnings rise.   

 

II. Liquidity

            Alcan’s ability to meet its current financial liabilities is higher than Alcoa having the difference of 2.6 points.  Since 2004, the two companies exhibited similar movements wherein the increase/ decrease in current liabilities led to increase/ decrease of current assets.  This is an indication that they are financing some of their current assets with current liabilities.  Also since 2004, Alcoa and Alcan exhibited continuous decrease in financing activities while increasing its investing activities.  Such trade-off is reflected in the relationship of its current assets and current liabilities.  Both of the companies derived most of their current assets/ liabilities in trade receivables/ payables and inventories/ short-term borrowings which suggested the vitality of inventory turn-over and collection efficiency.  Such weight is concretized by low-levels of cash/ cash equivalents and short-term investments exemplified in the balance sheet of both companies.

 

            The heightened sales performance of Alcan in 2006 is showed by 1.6 advantage over Alcoa in quick ratio.  The former inventories are relatively easily sold than the latter; therefore, it did not have to rely much on inventories to pay short-term obligations.  This finding assigns to Alcan the initial impression that it has relative strength in coping short-term liabilities.  However, in evaluating the aggregate three-year performance of both firms, the Alcoa has higher quick ratio in 2004 and 2005.  With this, it can be thought that Alcan’s 2006 performance derived the biggest “disturbance” in its high earnings growth relative to past two years.  Such also affected lower inventory levels and higher quick ratio.  Further, the increase in trade payables and trade receivable are seemingly related to each other.  If this suggests that the payment for trade is derived from receipt of receivable, collection and payment efficiencies should be managed properly.

 

III. Efficiency

            In collection efficiency, Alcoa consistently exceeded Alcan with 2006 figures separating the two companies with 7.3 points.  The comparative figures mean that Alcoa receives the actual payment for its credit sales approximately 37 days from the day of invoice compared to Alcan who lagged at approximately 44 days.  As a result, the upper hand of Alcan’s in liquidity ratios is tarnished by faster conversion of Alcoa of its inventories to cash.  If any, Alcan benefits from having a higher trade receivable account but not on cash and cash equivalents.  On the contrary, Alcan has longer grace period in paying for its short-term obligations compared to Alcoa with average payment period upper hand of 51.63 points (i.e. days).  As a result, the former situation compensated its relative inefficiency in collection.  In this view, the preposition that payment for trade receivables are used to finance existing liabilities grain ground. 

 

For Alcoa, low average payment period (i.e. even below the collection period) can mean two-things; namely, it can have substantial  free cash flows or it has risky short-term obligations due to shorter grace periods.  The former cannot be supported by liquidity ratios because Alcan took-over the advantage.  However, the 2006 reductions in receivables and increases in prepaid expenses and other current assets can reflect that Alcoa has enough cash to pay for its obligations (i.e. even in advance) despite low levels of receivables.  However, for the investors, the inability of the company to bargain payment extensions from capital suppliers can adversely affect their returns.  This is evidenced by minimal financing activities of Alcoa in 2006 (i.e. from $324 Million to $20 Million) where payments in dividends remained constant since 2004 while long-term debt repayments have a three-year all time low.  The funds could have been diverted to pay short-term obligations had diminished the chance of shareholders to receive higher dividends.      

 

In inventory efficiency, Alcoa maintained the 14.4 points edge contrary to Alcan.  This means that the former sold more inventories as percentage of total sales.  This ratio showed that the substantial increase in sales of Alcan in 2006 did meet the growth expectation of the company leading to inventory surplus, thus, lower inventory turnover.  On the contrary, the modest and consistent sales of Alcoa aided the company to accurately forecast the demand for the coming year.  Due to this difference, Alcoa maintained higher inventory turnover even if it incurred considerable rise in COGS probably due to volatile price movements of raw materials and prices of its products.  The three-year performance of the two firms also showed that Alcoa is consistent on having efficient inventory turnover compared to the near competitor Alcan.

 

In terms of efficiency in utilizing their assets, the two firms are at par with one another as no difference is derived in asset turnover.  Due to this, the need for economies of scale and scope in the industry is evidenced as companies are using this benchmark to sustain substantial costs in heavy industries.  However, by digging deeper in asset efficiency, Alcoa exceeded 14.4 points in fixed asset turnover compared to Alcan.  This ratio is helpful in showing the manufacturing capabilities and value-adding resources of the firm that investors may view as precious in their decision-making.  Alcan may have significant wastage in product defects or its machines have relative shorter performance lives.  Labor productivity is also a crucial factor to consider in evaluating fixed assets because the low fixed asset turnover of Alcan can be supported by more skilled and motivated workforce.  However, since the industry is capital-intensive, such admonition is difficult to assume rather should be based on actual findings (e.g. fixed asset ratios).

 

IV. Financial Stability

            As Alcan exceeded the debt-to-equity ratio of Alcoa by 0.56 points, it is more leveraged and has higher financial risk.  Due to this, the higher financing activities of Alcan can be presupposed to come from debts that it had afford to increased investments and financing activities at the same time.  Compared to the same situation of Alcoa also with increased operating cash flows, cash that are used in financing activities have substantially reduced from 2005 levels.  This mean that Alcan is using is debt on a rather strategic way while Alcoa can experience relative reduction in sales growth due to minimal financing and investing activities.  As both of their ratios are injected with almost the same levels of debt and equity, the financial risk being more attributable to Alcan is justified by effort to increase returns (i.e. bigger/ smaller risks will result to bigger/ smaller returns).  Alcoa may be on the brink of undercutting the debt edge.

 

            Even though Alcoa has lower debt-to-equity ratio, its times interest earned or coverage ratio is higher by 3.13 points compared to Alcan.  This is a bad signal for the latter because as it is more leverage than the former it would require the ability to pay the interest in order to prevent demise of credit worthiness and even face litigation.  Such scenario is apparently avoided by Alcan as it posted a huge difference in financing activities compared to Alcoa.  The former used most of its cash from its operations for debt repayments while the latter hardly pay for such account.  This approach is consistent with the fact that Alcan undercut interest payments in 2006 compared to 2004 and 2005 while the less indebted Alcoa even intensified its interest payments.  The seemingly opposite debt payment strategies of the two companies are eminent.  With this, Alcan is on the risk of inability to borrow from creditors which can limit long-term growth of the firm.

V. Horizontal and Vertical Analysis

            The initial boost of Alcan’s stocks in the first quarter of 2007 is combined results of good earnings in 2006, increased in aluminum prices, plant expansions, more leveraged business model and European exposure.  Due to these factors, such trend is expected to remain over the year and that will offer potential investors above average returns.  On the other hand, Alcoa only received a pinch of price increase as it announced divestment of one of its low- margin business area.  However, as showed in ratio analysis above, this will trim down the inefficiencies lurking in COGS particularly in 2006 that pulled its net profit margin behind Alcan even with higher sales in absolute amounts and year-on-year growth.  Further, most analysts suggested that Alcoa’s price outlook can be directed to a more positive scenario if its assets and investments are less diversified.  Due to this, the stake of the company in pharmaceutical and other consumer products are on the verge of re-assessment to assure business success in the future which could undermine its substantial capital expenditures implemented in 2006.

 

            According to corporate leaders of aluminum companies, the industry will have a balance market in 2007.  However, the growth in demand will fall from 6.8% in 2006 to 6.7% in 2007 and overall supply will risk 7.8%.  As a consequence, even though the supportive status of market indicators, aluminum industry will post less growth in the current year except perhaps from industry-specific strategies and situations.  In the vertical industry like steel and iron, a growth company Steel Dynamics can trigger the consolidation trend for steel/ iron and metal industry.  Steel/ iron industry is regarded as efficient industry while most of the companies have lower debt-to-equity ratio.  As a result, most firms are acquiring diligently using minimal debt financing rather rely on growth revenues to finance them.  The implications to the aluminum industry is that it can have customers shifting to steel/ iron and metal industries due to substantial economies of scale and scope.  As a result, aluminum companies such as Alcoa and Alcan are expected to intensify the dependence of their customers on their products through continuous innovation and cost-efficient operations.

 

VI. Portfolio Decision

            In profitability, Alcoa has more consistent performance than Alcan making the former more safe investment destination.  The substantial increase in sales of Alcan and subsequent increase in costs of Alcoa in 2006 have underpinned the positions of two companies.  However, as the industry merely receives positive impact of increase in aluminum price in the 2006 while Alcoa is improving its portfolio, Alcoa is more profitable in the long-term and less risky compared to the short-term and cyclical direction of Alcan.  Consistency is also implied in liquidity ratios exemplified by Alcoa where Alcan only took the upper hand in drastic sales success in 2006.  Efficiency in collection, inventory and bargaining is payment are also attributed to Alcoa, although as shareholder, it is more advantageous to haggle payment periods of creditors.  The plant efficiency of Alcoa also surpassed Alcan even if there are still inefficient areas to develop.  Lastly, financial stability is afforded in Alcoa relative to Alcan due to less leverage and higher coverage ratio.  As a result, Alcoa is also ready for consolidation threats of the steel/ ore and metal industry as the latter industries are also less indebted.

 

Appendices

Appendix 1: Manual Computation of Unsearchable Financial Ratios

FINANCIAL RATIOS
	AA				AL
	2006	2005	2004		2006	2005	2004
I. Profitability
Return on Equity	0.154	0.092			0.162	0.013	0.024
Return on Total Assets	0.060	0.037			0.062	0.005	0.008
Net Profit Margin	0.074	0.048			0.076	0.006	0.010
Gross Profit Margin	0.126	0.090			0.112	0.033	0.037
Earnings Per Share	2.57	1.40	1.49		4.47	0.33	0.69
Dividend Pay-out	0.233	0.425			0.150	1.736	0.864
II. Liquidity
Current Ratio	1.258	1.163			1.284	1.101	1.017
Quick Ratio	0.735	0.711			0.751	0.625	0.580
III. Efficiency
Average Collection Period	37.571	37.345			44.928	41.458	47.505
Average Payment Period	32.200	34.547			83.835	82.772	85.486
Inventory Turnover	2.051	2.034			1.907	1.842	1.877
Asset Turnover	0.817	0.759			0.817	0.763	0.748
Fixed Assets Turnover	2.051	2.034			1.907	1.842
IV. Financial Stability
Total Debt to Total Assets	0.558	0.563			0.614	0.635	0.664
Times Interest Earned	7.938	4.811	6.945		7.356	-0.077	0.673

 

Article on Race

Article on Race

 

            The chosen article for this assignment is entitled, “Integrating Global Citizenship in Today’s Curricula”, by Dr., and was taken from the Manila Bulletin. The main point of the article is to emphasize the concept of global citizenship in different forms of education, such as in academic institutions, in religion, in environmental protection, and through international dialogues and conferences. Although this article does not point exactly at the concept of race, it somehow encompasses it, as global citizenship tackles the ideas of human rights education, human dignity, decency and integrity, which helps understand and appreciate the idea of race and ethnicity. With this, the article proposes to incorporate the teaching of these values in the school curricula to be able to help address global responsible citizenship, and in turn, race and ethnicity.

            The article by is considered a linguistic article, as it aims to convey and express an idea that would be beneficial and informative to its readers. The article focuses on the importance of the use of education as a means for educating students and other citizens in relation to global citizenship, and in turn, race and ethnicity. I chose this article because I believe that to be able to appreciate the concept of race and ethnicity one must be able to know the importance of global citizenship. If one is able to recognize the fact that an individual has his or her own citizenship, then that person can recognize the uniqueness of the culture and race that other individuals have. I have chosen this article because I would like to express my view that I completely agree with the author, that giving importance to citizenship leads to giving importance to race and ethnicity. The article by Canlas-Callang is a very informative and very interesting article, which was able to impart an emphasis on the importance of education as a means of communicating to readers the significance of global citizenship. With proper education, teachers, researchers, and other academic instructors will be able to inform people regarding the importance of knowing the concept of global citizenship.

            The emphasis of the article is mainly on the importance of integrating the concept of global citizenship in the curricula of academic institutions. From this statement, it can be seen that the concepts of race and ethnicity cannot be derived instantly. However, if we examine and understand to article closely, it can be understood that the concept of global citizenship encompasses moral development, respect for human dignity, human rights education, and teaching the culture, social, economic, religious and linguistic differences among individuals from different parts of the world, which underlie the idea of race and ethnicity. Race, in this sense of the article is important for the author, because understanding and appreciating race becomes a consequence of knowing the concept of global citizenship. In addition, although not direct, the author gives importance to the concept of race in the article for she emphasized the respect towards human dignity and rights, culture, religion, and linguistic differences of individuals. If summed, the author clearly points out to giving respect to the uniqueness of race of each individual belonging to any society.  

            The audience of the article refers to its every reader, who would like the author to be informed regarding the importance of education as a means of communicating the concept of global citizenship in relation to race and ethnicity. Particularly, the audience of the article includes the students from all academic institutions around the world, for the aim of this article is to inform readers of the integration of global citizenship in the curricula of schools. With this, the students are the ones concerned primarily, for they will be ones who will obtain the information first hand. With this, I believe that the audience somehow influenced the author because clearly, the author can observe the trends in the society today, which include migration to other countries, obtaining employment from other societies and intermarriage to other cultures. With this influence, the author was able to state that the education regarding global citizenship would be most relevant at this stage, as a way of appreciating the culture.        

            At this point, I believe that giving importance to the race and culture of other individuals alleviates the incidences of discrimination and racism, thus, upholding human rights, dignity and respect. The emphasis on race and culture enables one to appreciate the uniqueness of one another, which will be very helpful in promoting and encouraging peace and order in every society, especially in multicultural societies and organizations. In addition, the emphasis and importance on the concept of race would be a good strategy for education, information, and improvement of morality and dignity among individuals belonging to any society. In relation to the article, I believe that its meaning would not be changed if race were not emphasized because the concept stressed in the article would be focused on its importance in the school curricula, thus, addressing all the important issues related to global citizenship, including discrimination and multiculturalism of institutions. With this, the concept of race is still emphasized and given importance.     

***How does the concept or race in this article compare to how we discuss the concept in class and in our reading? (the client can answer this question)

 

Copy of Newspaper Article

 

Integrating Global Citizenship in Today's Curricula.

 

Byline: Dr. ConsueloC. Canlas Callang VP Academics and Research, St. Michael's College of Laguna

TEACHING global citizenship today is a more serious concern than it must have been some decades ago. Schools all over the world have started to come to terms with the fact that each individual has a responsibility towards others - something that only a structured curriculum as found in schools can hope to teach those concerned. Students are made cognizant today of the interconnectivity of lives - a very vital concept to understand for all citizens of the world. The Internet and the World Wide Web have made it easy for us to touch base with almost all parts of the world. Thus it is imperative that students are taught to think of one world and our common humanity. It was not very long ago when lessons in Civics emphasized the responsibility to love God and one's own country and to respect the patrimony of the land. Then, the emphasis was on the Motherland. Today, it is Mother Earth - everybody's Mother Earth. Mass media have made it easier for all of us to relate to tragedies such as Hurricane Katrina, the tsunami in Indonesia, earthquakes in Pakistan or Kashmir, famine in Ethiopia and the killer earthquakes and landslides that we have experienced recently. Teaching the subject is helped by mass media, but the responsibility mainly remains with teachers at all levels.

Considering that even our seas are interconnected, oil spills in any part of the world can affect fish and marine life, trade and commerce elsewhere. It is imperative that the teaching of environmental protection, as well as the teaching of peace promotion, grassroots activism, intercultural and multi-cultural understanding be paid the necessary attention it deserves. Today, more than ever, every teacher must be an agent of peace, of multi-cultural understanding, of appreciation of others aside from being a facilitator of learning of the various subjects to be learned in the classroom. As well, students should be taught about gender sensitivity and politically acceptable terms.

Various agencies are working to make this a reality. Through international dialogues and conferences, educators, researchers, school administrators and scholars discuss and learn together what needs to be done so as to effectively teach global citizenship to students worldwide. Last July 7-12, 2006, the World Council for Curriculum and Instruction convened an international group at the historic Manila Hotel. Educators, NGOs and government representatives put ideas together, learning from one another's experiences. The delegates debated issues of import to Curriculum and Instruction in developing the global citizen. Discussions sometimes got a little touchy on such sensitive issues as Religion and even the meaning of true peace. The objectives of fostering cultural understanding through inter-cultural communication among educators and teachers on a worldwide scale as well as encouraging transnational collaborative efforts at curriculum research and development were obviously achieved as evidenced by the various group resolutions read on the last day of activities. In terms of promoting critical understanding of social problems from a global perspective, the various questions raised during the open forums created the impression that indeed there are social problems of such magnitude that individual and concerted efforts in classrooms and government boardrooms are needed.

It is to the credit of educators that such goals as ensuring that education contributes to peace promotion and equity as well as to the universal realization of human rights is becoming actualized. Well, almost. This can truly be achieved only if schools will develop in the learners the required comprehensive sense of respect for others; for one's self and the environment.

How may instruction help actualize the above goals to benefit every learner? The answer is in the hands of those who teach. Every subject at all curriculum levels should be a forum for learning respect for human dignity. Every class discussion should be a time for emphasizing the inter-connectivity of lives in this planet. Lessons planned must include the needed higher order thinking skills (HOTS) and the desired values (Axiology). Conscience and moral development must point the direction in skills and competency instruction. What good is acquisition of skills when there is no accompanying moral behavior to make the person become a better steward of the earth's resources or a contributor to peace efforts? Now more than ever, we move in the direction of equal opportunities for employees, equity/equality for those who have less. It was during the time of the late President Ramon Magsaysay when I first became aware of the need to give more of the law for those who have less in life, meaning protecting the have-nots by the judicious application of laws. Treating those who are disadvantaged economically and in other ways therefore must be in accordance with the law. This lessens chances of maltreatment of or taking advantage of the poor. Laws are no respecters of position because under the law, everyone is equal. That the law is blind speaks of a quality that every learner should take advantage of.

Schools today are aware of the need to integrate peace promotion in instruction owing to growing problems in relationships among people and nations. Religion has become a reason for riots in such parts as Australia, Afghanistan, the Middle Eastern countries and elsewhere, all supposedly sparked by what was considered disrespect for a religious book. Because of this and other similar reasons, some school systems abroad have chosen to do away with religious instruction. This however has a downside to it. Perhaps it would be better if the different religions were studied/introduced to learners so that ignorance about religions, beliefs and practices would be avoided and as a result, biases and prejudices would be reduced if not totally erased. Multi-cultural respect and understanding can help promote goodwill among people, and schools particularly universities can help in its promotion.

What are nations doing about teaching global citizenship? Nigeria, for one, presents elements of peace education as part of citizenship education and social studies in their Universal Basic Education Curricula. Nigeria is a heterogeneous country characterized by cultural, social, economic, religious, and linguistic differences, which have sometimes resulted in wars. Education for peace promotion is now a very important thrust for their schools. According to a study done by Lilian-Rita Akudulu recently, they had a revolution and a civil war from January 1966 to January 1970. Even after the war, however, there still persisted cases of tribal hostility and political intolerance that led to loss of lives. This is not so different from what is happening in the southern part of our country. As a consequence, schools have to do peace keeping through instruction. Teaching people to lead peaceful lives should help, if only the lessons hit their mark.

Meanwhile, Daya Sandhu from the University of Louisville in the USA worked on a study that aimed to show human dignity, decency, and integrity as the sine qua non of human rights education, i.e. these are the core values needed to promote human rights education. When anyone is deprived of the above by reasons of race, color, creed or personality, this is tantamount to denigrating one's humanity. In Turkey, a group of university people investigated how language teaching could contribute to world efforts at attaining peace by looking at some cultural elements concerning peace, as found in different language materials. It has thus become a Turkish language teacher's task to identify such elements for effectively promoting peace through instruction. Turkish textbooks were also studied by another group of university scholars to determine the importance and significance of peace education in Turkish elementary schools.

In Japan, Yumiko Suzuki of Hiroshima University worked on a program designed to teach school children the rudiments of moral behavior. The study was anchored on Lawrence Kohlberg's theory on moral development. This is with the end in view of helping children to develop good human relationships later - something to think about when educating for peace. Here we can see examples of what universities in the world are doing to teach global citizenship. As to whether they are succeeding is a big question to those in academe.

Thus, schools can try to teach people to become morally upright, tolerant of others, respectful of human dignity and good stewards of the earth's resources. Moreover, schools can teach students the evil consequences of bigotry. Every teacher and every school leader who works to interface or integrate the teaching of globally responsible citizenship in their classrooms must be doing humanity some good. Maybe we can still hope for lasting peace and a better environment. Maybe the young can still admire the butterflies and fish in the waters. Maybe there will be fewer warring factions and disparities among peoples and races. Maybe there will still be birds in trees and lesser pollution, so we can still breathe fresh air. Much of this will depend on how well our schools teach global citizenship.

 

 

 

MARKETING CONCEPT FOR COMPANIES

• Marketing Concept for Companies

 

Companies must be able to practice marketing concept within their organization to analyze the needs of their customers. .The marketing concept relies heavily on the definition of the market segment, its size and needs By understanding customers’ needs, the company will be able to find ways on how to satisfy the needs better than their competitors. The increase in discretionary income allows customers to be selective and purchase products that precisely meet their expectations and changing needs. Therefore the company must focus its efforts to know what the customers want and how to supplement the needs whilst keeping the customers satisfied.

            In this regard, marketing concept can be used to focus the need of the customer before developing a product or service. After which, the functional areas of the company must be aligned to focus on meeting those needs. Since the organization is concerned with the customer satisfaction, the entire organization must not neglect customer issues. The end result will lead to profit by successfully satisfying the needs of the customers.

• Environmental Scanning in Domestic and International Marketing

            Environmental scanning is a business management process wherein businesses gather information from the environment where they will operate to achieve a competitive advantage. The information gathered from the environmental scanning are then used to alter the strategies and plans of the company. It involves scanning the social, economic, technological, competitive and regulatory forces.

            In today’s organizations, external environmental factors are increasingly becoming complex and volatile. Because of this, managers utilize a wide array of change forces including the globalization of the market. With the environment scanning, the information about events, trends and relationships in an organization’s external environment are acquired.

            The extent to which an environment is scanned by the business differs between the domestic and the global market. Scanning the external environment in the global arena would entail more information especially since the multinational enterprises are not familiar with the business environment unlike from those in their home country. This would entail intercultural communication, understanding the regulatory forces, trade barriers and employment laws implemented in the country. Moreover, the competition in the global market is more intense and thus requiring the organization to constantly scan the environment for new opportunities, technological developments and determine the requirements for the workforce to survive the fast paced environment. The smooth execution of these tasks will certainly allow the organization to thrive in the global marketplace.

            The environment scanning in the domestic market will also need to undergo socio political, economic and technological scanning. Only that the environment in which the business operates is less complex as compared to the global market. Since managers are familiar with the business environment and people’s way of doing things, they are more likely to acquire valuable information and understanding of the environment with lesser effort.

• Impact of lesser time allocation for meal preparation in the sales of frozen vegetables

In an era where people are increasingly preoccupied by work and their demanding schedules, lesser time is given to the preparation of meals. Such trend has indeed become the lifestyle of most working individuals. Primarily, this is attributed with the need to cope in their fast paced living. This paved the way for the emergence of more food chains that caters take out food and instant meals. Such has a clear impact in the food industry specifically in the sales of frozen vegetables. As people get busy, they are compelled to purchase food that is economical and easier to prepare. Thus, they are less likely to keep frozen food or vegetables as there are other more convenient options for them.

• Useful way to segment the markets for the banking products/services.

Market segmentation requires the division of the market into distinct subsets that behave in the same way and therefore have the same needs. Since each segment is fairly homogenous in terms of their needs, they are likely to respond in a single marketing strategy. One of the requirements for a successful segmentation is the enormity of the segment to be profitable. The market segment for the banking industry can be considered a broad. Hence, it can target businesses, individuals and family alike. With this, it can use the top-down approach in which the total population becomes the starting point and then divide it into segments. The bank then can choose into either becoming a commercial or savings bank depending on the market segment they chose from the total population.

References

 

ETHICS AND GOVERNANCE

 

BUSINESS ETHICS AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
 

Table of Contents

I.      Introduction. 3

II.     Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 3

III.        Positive Effects of CSR. 4

IV.        Need for Corporate Disclosure. 6

V.     Conclusion. 7

VI.        References. 8

 

I.                  Introduction

The realm of business has drastically evolved nowadays. Traditionally, seeking profit from the market was one of the primary goals of the company. That is to say the ends justify the means of taking it. What hasn’t changed is the value of the consumers and primary customers of the company. Companies still regard the customers highly. Thus, acquiring profit has been set aside as a mere component of organizations to grow. Companies now need to acquire the favour of customers: both existing and potential customers. Companies that intend to be at the top of their respective industries, or even survive, need the favour of the public. They could do this by presenting a positive image through marketing or they could touch a more profound aspect of their target market particularly those applicable to the morals and principles of the public. This need spawned what is termed as corporate social responsibility (CSR). It is an attempt of the company to address the more pressing issues regarding their role in society in general. The following discussion will argue in favour of the implementation of corporate social responsibilities among organisations.     

 

II.               Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has absolutely been an element of contemporary business culture. Several studies have been published in an effort to keep a record of the needs held by applying such in a company. In the article of  (2003, ) he claimed that the deficiency of such accountability between organisations have activated humiliations and even collapse of large corporations. Errors in market trading and even shams on manners of disposing the company’s waste seem to be among the most argued themes in the existing articles on CSR.  (2003) mentioned the violation of this social responsibility among companies as a “business ethic missteps.”() This symbolizes an oversight of a company in bearing in mind the existing principles and morals in a specific society. In this framework,  (2003) presented a pair of wide-ranging claims. He indicated that society has provided ardent attention on matters of corporate social responsibility in the last four decades. Just as he similarly claimed that having such an interest depended on such incidences, banners concerning these violations have the propensity to add together as newsworthy scandals. ()

As measured up to the business environment in the earlier periods of the 1900s, the stakeholders seem to be more caught up in the operations of an organization. Earlier studies on corporate social responsibility pointed it out as a tool to combat the “social cost.” ( and , 1995, )  In the said study, they established a positive correlation involving social responsibility and financial performance. Although it is not perceived as an unvarying effect, majority of the studied corporations are inclined to exhibit such findings.

III.            Positive Effects of CSR

The disposition of the critics of CSR in the conference indicates primarily that employing CSR is a total waste of time and resources. However, there are academics that seen it in another light. It does have a positive effect on the company. Several studies have been made demonstrating the consequence of CSR on the buying behaviour of the target market of the company. A fresh addition is the work of  and  (2001, ). In their claims, they maintained that for buying behaviour and CSR to have a positive connection, a number of criteria have to be satisfied. The consumers have to grown to be conscious of the “level of social responsibility” implemented by the company. ()  This denotes that the informing the public what the corporation is doing include of a preponderance of how it could optimistically influence the purchasing behaviour of the public. Efficient marketing and advertising is thus important in this instant. The use of mass media or any other implements would be the solution in educating the public of their activities.

As stated in the earlier parts of the paper, the work of  (2003, ) noted that financial performance does have a positive association with the organisation’s CSR. Conversely, current articles point out that the trouble with this assertion is that the return of investment (ROI) established on these activities is purely characterized in terms of social ROI. (, 2005, ) This denotes that in spite of how efficient or impressive the scheme a company creates, instant financial proceeds may not be readily seen. In line with the said study, intrinsically there are quite a few factors that motivate companies in applying CSR programmes. These consist of “managing risk and reputation; protecting human capital assets; responding to consumer demands; and avoiding regulation.” (, 2005, ) Seen at this context, the performance of such agendas is undeniably profitable. It stands for an investment praiseworthy of the risk.

Moreover, the CSR does have an implication on the general performance of the company. It is thus expected that it would have an encouraging effect on the market share of the organisation. Even in earlier studies on social responsibility, this has been perceived as reality. ( and , 1993, ) In the said study, it is seen that managers observe the functioning of CSR as a basic ends supportive of their interests on top of the company’s. ( and , 1993, ) This signifies that a socially responsible corporation would have a superior capability to get hold of a much larger market share than those who are supposed to be otherwise.  

IV.           Need for Corporate Disclosure

However, it must be noted that companies have to regard shareholder primacy’s value. Traditionally, the concept of shareholder primacy has been measured as the primary authorization of the directors and senior officers of a corporation in the circumstance of corporate law. In particular, all the “energies” of the  ( , 1995,) board have to be point to the progress of the shareholders on the whole. This claim likewise claims the fiduciary obligation of the board of directors to make the executive actions within the company known to the corporation and its shareholder. ()

Based on the said argumenge (2002), the principles presented by traditional corporate law may possibly be progressively becoming obsolete and impractical in the current setting. The value of the shareholders has considerably seen as diminishing by the more contemporary scholars of corporate la(w., 2000) Possibly, the delegation of the decision making power of these shareholders are given to the board of directors such that learned decisions are carried out. . Though it appears that ’s (2002) claim is rather in effect already, the actions of these directors should constantly be subjected to the knowledge of the shareholders. This accountability on the part of the directors is to be discussed on the subsequent part, specifically the principle of corporate disclosure.

V.              Conclusion

The commercial environment held by the organizations has changed considerably. However, one must recognise that the competitive nature of the players in every industry has considerably changed as well. The focus has been pointed towards the consumers. Essentially, this is what the CSRs actually intend to do, to create an image for the consumers that companies are doing its share to establish “sustainable development.” As  (2005, ) this trend has triggered companies and commercial organisations to make CSR programmes based on economic decisions. Improvements that these programmes tend to create manifests only in areas where actual profit could be made. That seems to be the reality. There will be less people thinking of the major inconveniences provided by the company like a more congested neighbourhood. As long as companies have an arsenal of marketing tools to use, they could always find a way to spin this on their favour.    

  

VI.           References

Stock Exchange

Approach on the Investment/ Trading Strategies    

            Even if the stock prices are volatile in several months, this hardly affect long-run investment strategy (2004).  Technical analysis and charting provides useful information regarding the graphical performance of stock price performance which can be optimized if applied with fundamental analysis or the hard-facts.  The former approach, if used isolate, has the advantage of not dwelling much on the financial position of the firm.  As a result, there is minimal effects of financial fraud and the need for pricey consultants.  Specific signals using graphs include buying/ selling depending if the current stock price is above the moving average or below it, the stock is bullish when its price rises while its volume increases at the same time and bullish level when the stock price exceeded the resistance point.

 

            The first strategy is to buy shares of small companies and hold them for a long time (2007).  This serves as the long-term objective of the portfolio strategy where it can hedge attempts to bet to bigger companies.  The advantage of this selection is that small firms are easy to understand and have positive impression of distorted price.  As safe investments, however, the investor intends to put-up 20,000 of capital for this kind of investments.  The candidate companies are Dobbies, Spice Holdings, Claimar Care, Sirius Financial and Educational Development.  This area of shares can mitigate any substantial loss that will accurate through exposure to actively-traded shares.  In the future, small companies also have higher chance to grow where the investor can simply sell the shares to the minimum point in which it outperforms the market average.  By that time, the hedging/ defensive mechanism of the investor is protected and long-term targets are achieved.

 

            Trading plan is necessary before going into the trading zone (2007).  There should be fragmented time-horizons like short, medium and long-run objectives on returns.  This will guide the investor to decide whether the level of risk that has taken is way above the original objective prior to the actual trading.  Another is the prevention of loosing money in a single transaction which means daily transactions and efforts should be applied with substantial prudence and patience before expecting much returns.  Alternatively, forget daily surges of impression in getting very high returns.  Third issue is to have a smell for loss.  If medium and long-term share investments starts to dip under the limit of the investor, there is a need to see the shares no matter what.  This is to avoid to much loss that will arise for too much patience.  This will also prevent the capital from being used-up.  Attitudes of the investor will be his primary tool to succeed in the trade while objective approach will be selected. 

 

            As the ultimate goal is to invest on shares that can outperform the market index, there is also a need to minimize the risk of doing so  (2007).  However, due to the constraint, the bulk of the investment amount (i.e. 100,000) will be derive a risk-taking stance but risk-minimization can be used to justify substantial risk shouldering.  This will be done by taking the position of a trader rather an investor.  The first thing to consider is to start trading with minimal amounts just to deflect any substantial risk in the subsequent outperforming shares.  In this way, many investors can also be transacted because trader's shares do not post high risks to them.  As trading relies to time-frame applied to be successful, there is also a need for a long-term trader position to blend well with the long-term position as an investor to other shares.  In this way, the portfolio would look like evenly spread on the same time horizons.

 

            The below company will ensure that the long-term investment destination of the 100,000 will be fruitful coming up with strengths seen in the merger deal of two of the biggest and growing pharmaceutical firm in Europe.  The approach can be on the processes within the merger deal and also it can take the post-merger deal.  The 100,000 will ensure profitability in both cases, of course, with the aid of trading strategies being applied with small companies.  The discussion below will concertize that the selected share for substantial investment proved to be a formidable source of returns above the market index (i.e. London Stock Exchange).  Strategic direction, competitive position if not leadership and    future trends (i.e. Both technical and fundamental/ firm specific) support this view.     

 

Background on the Operations of the Selected Share

 

            Boots-Alliance Unichem merger deal had been reported as early as October 2005 with the purpose of reviving the sales drought Boots was experiencing for recent years (2005).  The merger was also intended to minimize pre-tax cost savings of about £100M primarily due to downsizing (e.g. employees).  As early as the £7B deal initiated by Boots was leaked into the market, shares of both companies strongly rose.  Boots shares gained 4% or 24.5 pence to close at 633 pence while Alliance Unichem gained 1% or 8.5 pence to close at 875 pence.  Boots and Alliance Unichem operate in pharmaceutical and health-related retailing industry but the former is only UK-based while the latter has a more global approach with stores in at least five countries including UK (2005).

 

Pre-Merger

            As shown in table 1, the share price of boots continued to rise from the merger deal announcement up just before the actual merger date which happened in 31 July 2006.  It is possible for share prices to act this way because, as part of total return to shareholders, share prices reflect the future expectations of the majority of the holders and also the market ( 2006).  And the merger of two giant companies is a near creation of an industry monopoly which can provide infinite advantages for its owners.  For example, having an expectation of monopoly makes the merged company price-maker in the product market due to substantial economies of scale being achieved.  As a result, potential total return to shareholders, that is both capital gains from increase in share price and dividend pay-outs, will inevitably increase due to the fact that profits will surely be above industry standards.

 

            However, looking at the performance of the original Boots Group before merger, year-ended 2006 profit before tax of £348.9M is relatively lower to year-end 2005 profit before tax of £427.6M ( 2006).  In the pre-merger deal, dividend pay-outs have little concern because Boots was implementing constant dividend growth despite underperformance (2005).  So, the question is that why its share price continued to soar?  The discussion above cleared the issue of why the merger resulted in positive outlook from investors.  The rationale is that, even if Boots is underperforming in 2006 relative to its performance in 2005, the value of shares reflects not this situation but forward and beyond it (e.g. perception of monopoly stance of the merged firm).

 

Table 1: Share Price Chart of Boots Group Plc in the Pre-Merger (LSE 2006)

Post-Merger

            Table 2 shows that the merged-firm’s share price continue to appreciate from August 1, 2006 to December 8, 2006 and it is unlikely that it will go below the 777 pence closing in the last day of the per-merger deal.  Perhaps, this is the indication of the relentless positive expectations now that the merger has been completed.  Also, in its interim results ended 30 September 2006, the merged firm had announced how shareholder expectations are met (2006).  Revenues, trading and underlying profit, earnings and earnings per share are all up to comparative figures.  With this, it is eminent that the intention of Boots had been somehow successful as far as interim result is concerned.

                       

Table 2: Share Price of Alliance Boots as a New Firm (Alliance Boots 2006)

 

            While issues concerning Boots are settled, issues concerning shareholders are yet to be apparent.  According to post-merger documents, Alliance Unichem became a wholly owned subsidiary of Boots (2006).  As a result, the shares of Alliance Unichem were canceled and holders of such shares will be compensated by 1.332 of New Boots Share (NBS).  Ownership of the merged firm will be held 49.8% for Alliance Unichem shareholders and 50.2% for Boots shareholders.  In this order, the New Boots Shares will be issued as fully paid either to Boots or Unichem shareholders and will be entitled for dividends and other distributions on or after the post-merger.  On the other hand, Unichem shareholders which have prior interest with regards to their holding (e.g. dividends before the post-merger) will also be paid to allow adjustments as the New Boots Shares will be dispensed (2006).

 

            To illustrate the implications of this settlement on share value and dividend payouts, there is a need to outline impacts of the merger regarding these components (1999).  For Alliance Unichem shareholders, their share exchange ratio is 1:1.332 which means that if a Unichem shareholder has 100 shares, he will receive 133 NBS.  Days before the actual merger date, Unichem share price was 1,068 pence or £10.68.  However, with the current NBS price of £7.915, which means that there is a decrease in share price at £2.765 relative to the historic data of pre-merger.  Gains will be £261.195 (33 shares x £7.915) and losses will be £276.50 (100 x £2.765) which gives the Unichem shareholder a net loss of £15.305 (£261.195 - £276.50) per 100 shareholdings.  

 

            In terms of dividend payments, Unichem shareholders were entitled in the October 2006 dividend of 13.25 pence per share (Alliance Boots 2006).  This is a near figure compared to the last issuance of dividends of the firm for 2005 performance amounting to 13.6 pence per share before March 2006 announced closure.  In effect, Unichem shareholders are better-off than Boots shareholders because even if their company had closed they have received dividends.  In the contrary, the supposedly constant dividend growth situated by Boots did not apply and Boots shareholders will not receive dividends until the end of March 2007.  This indicates that Unichem shareholders are compensated in their capital gain loss which is apparent in the computation above.  In addition, this dividend bias is also evidence that Unichem is the good performing company and Boots continued to be in under performing stance.

 

            Holders of Boots shares will have a 1:1 exchange with NBS.  This means that one Boots certificate will be replaced and handed with also one NBS.  As observed, shareholdings remain the same as Boots retain the ownership of the merged-company.  Further, the share price of Boots on the last day of the pre-merger deal was £7.77 which means that it is coinciding with the NBS current share price of £7.915.  In effect, Boots shareholders will have a gain of £0.145 per share.  This is what the merger brought to Boots shareholders which are the increase in capital gains due to the good performance of Unichem.  Also, the near figures indicated how the acquirer retained not only the ownership but the overall impression of the market.  Dividend payments will not be affected because the level of shares being held by Boots shareholders remains the same. In addition, it is announced that there will be no interim dividend payments until March 2007.

 

Conclusions and Future Implications

Merger-related performance changes display high degree of variability (1996 ) especially when share value and dividend payments will be the basis of performance.  This is because performance is measured not on the actual firm operations rather on expectations of the merger.  However, if sales of Boots will be viewed (see table 3) it will be noticed that earning performance did not change much for the better.  Looking on before tax figure is more appropriate because a firm can implement tax relief.  In this view, there is a need to use other performance measures such as market value added which is a better indicator of value creation (2006).                         

 

Table 3: Boots Performance before Actual Merger (Wikipedia 2006)

Year ended	Revenue (£m)	Profit before tax (£m)	Net profit (£m)
31 March 2006	5,027.4	348.9	303.4
31 March 2005	5,469.1	427.6	302.4
31 March 2004	5,325.0	579.9	411.5
31 March 2003	5,325.2	494.9	301.6
31 March 2002	5,328.3	595.8	404.3
31 March 2001	5,220.9	492.2	333.2
31 March 2000	5,187.0	561.7	399.0

          

            In the contrary, there are some advantages of having a continued rise in share prices.  One is that it can lower the cost of borrowing as well issuance of new equities while maintaining the confidence of customers and employees (2002).  In addition, it is apparent that the intrinsic value of shares cannot be calculated by net present value (NPV) of the firm unless in the long-term value of the shares.  As a result, management of a company cannot decide new strategies for the firm and its prospect becomes stagnant.  In the short run, however, the management can rely on market expectations particularly during merger decision-making.  With Boots having this in mind, it instantly lowered the cost of its capital by having an increase in its share price.  More importantly, it is able to overturn falling performance due to synergy with Unichem in a free-flowing and less problematic decision analysis which saved its operations from further decline.         

 

            In to the future of Alliance Boots, share prices will continue to rise as long as the synergy and monopolistic advantages are achieved.  More consistently, the merged firm should continuously exceed market expectations ( 2006) because it is the only way that it can sustain rising share prices and having low cost of capital.  Dividend payouts will also rely on this capability.  On the other hand, if the constant dividend growth model of Boots will be implemented, it can ease the merged firm effort to exceed market expectations.  This is because shareholders are assured of dividends even in a loosing year which is of course unlikely for a near-to-monopoly entity.  In this case, the position of shareholders in the newly merged firm will be profitable in the short, medium and long-run basis.      

 

'Tenants have too many rights and not enough responsibilities'. Discuss this statement. You should in particular reer to the following issues: rent arrears,repairs and maintenance

Introduction

Social policy-makers engage in a range of activities related to discovering and trying to solve social problems, or meeting an array of human needs. Yet the very idea that there are social problems out there waiting to be discovered is also controversial. Social policy addresses what are called social needs, such as the need for good education, health care or child care. There are equally interesting questions to be asked about how some needs are discovered and why others are not (., 2006). To discover and solve social problems or meet certain human needs, people engaged in social policy undertake research, evaluate programs, write speeches for politicians, draft legislation and make decisions to spend money in order to solve a wide range of social problems. One of the ways a social problem is discovered is by someone engaging in research. Many policy-makers do research in order to discover certain things about the world (., 2006).

 

They may want to know more about the scale and causes of social problems like poverty, homelessness, crime or unemployment, or they may want to know more about the needs of people with disabilities, or how single mothers do or don't cope with the cost of house rental. Time is also given to research intended to evaluate the effectiveness of existing government policies and programs. Policy-makers also engage in advocacy. This involves putting forward arguments about why governments should do something new or better to fix a certain social problem. Advocacy is performed by people who work inside government bureaucracies as much as it is done by people working for welfare organizations, universities or advocacy groups (., 2006). Social policy refers to what governments do when they attempt to improve the quality of people's lives by providing a range of income support, community services and support programs. Although social policy is an activity that governments do, it is not just confined to the realm of government, however. There has already been reference to the fact that some people do research or engage in advocacy for policy change. This is one way of recognizing that policy-making involves many other organizations besides government bureaucracies and departments. This is one reason for referring to the idea of a policy-making community (., 2006).

 

Social policies remain less extensive than in many other countries. In part, this was because there was no strong, unified working class party that could push for these changes. There have always been more privileged members of society who believed that such programs were necessary for the stability of the whole system ( 2001). Different countries have different social policies. Each social policy focuses on a certain need of a person. The social policy on social care is different from the policy on housing.  To gain housing some people have to rent. In renting people gain rights, this rights are sometimes are abused by the tenants and causes problems between the tenant and the landlord. The paper will discuss about the issue that tenants have too many rights and not enough responsibilities.

Housing

Housing is now perceived everywhere as a commodity with an exchange value, rather than as a basic need with a use value allocated, as of right, outside the marketplace. The facts concerning the existence of housing markets and their critical role in the provision of housing are indisputable. Individual market transactions are also by their very nature relatively silent, and there is no a priori reason to believe that the housing market is always alive and well ( 2000). The housing market is a sensitive, complex, and largely unknowable entity, subject to fits and starts, unpredictable, merciless, unstable, and almost totally dependent on forces outside itself. It is a valuable and irreplaceable social construct, one that needs to be handled with care; especially since it is the now the repository of vast personal wealth and this great wealth was largely in the hands of home-owning families. Fortunately, many of the housing policies which have ignored the market have been abandoned ( 2000).

 

There is no doubt that each new housing policy must face the housing market take it by the horns, so to speak, and make it behave. There is too much at stake. The challenge then is to understand, limit, and support the housing market in a manner that serves the fundamental interests of society in other words to enable the housing market to work ( 2000). Anyone interested in housing policy now has no choice but to confront the issue of housing market performance. A new vision and an effective voice for housing require dismantling the public institutions myopically engaged in the construction and management of public housing. New knowledge-rich government institutions must come into being, agencies that accumulate information about the workings of the housing sector as a key economic sector, monitor the pulse of the sector, understand the effects of the housing policy environment on the sector's performance, and implement minimal corrective mechanisms to support it in the attainment of realistic social objectives ( 2000).

 

 There is no alternative to articulating market-sensitive housing policies that can better gauge, limit, or support housing activity, and campaigning for their acceptance. Individual actors and institutions in the housing arena be they political parties, government agencies, research institutions, international organizations, non government agencies, professional associations, nonprofit organizations, community groups, builders, financial institutions, landowners, land and housing developers, squatter movements, and dwellers themselves have now attained different degrees of understanding of how to formulate such market-sensitive policies. ( 2000). Housing is an important policy of the government. Governments are trying to make sure that housing will be once again a solution for people’s basic needs and they are making sure that its use as a profiting tool will be minimized. Housing provides a place for people to stay. It doesn’t necessarily mean that the house belongs to the one living in it. People get a place to live in through either buying a house or renting a portion of somebody else’s property. There are different policies on renting and how a person can allow his property to be rented.

Housing Policy

The key players in housing include landowners, the construction industry, banks, building societies, the financial markets and homeowners, as well as a range of public and other agencies. While none of these has had a consistent influence on housing policy, there have been many examples of such interests influencing the direction of change. Housing policy will generally be implemented through the imposition or alteration of legally enforceable rules and regulations, so it is important to understand how the law affects whether a policy will be successful. Decent housing was recognized as essential to good health more than a century ago, and the concern about ill-health led to the development of housing policy ( 2000). As slum clearance and new build programs brought significant housing improvements, and the focus of health services shifted away from environmental effects towards a medical approach, housing and health policies gradually separated. However, there is now a renewed interest from both sides in the links between housing and health. Poor housing conditions such as damp, mould, condensation and cold persist and can cause poor health ( 2000).

 

Changes in housing policy were part of a new approach to public services in general, with the state becoming a purchaser rather than a provider, and competition between independent agencies to provide services under a contract. The complexity of housing issues also inhibits radical revision. Housing reflects and affects the economic and social framework in which it is located. Housing is influenced by demographic, economic, fiscal and social trends, while housing policy changes have their own impact on all of these aspects. Programs designed to deal with one issue often have unintended. The long-term political consensus on housing policy quickly evaporated in the early 1980s, for example, under a government prepared to question long-standing assumptions and goals ( 2000).Looking into the future is a hazardous exercise, in danger of being rapidly over-taken by events, but any wide-ranging analysis would be incomplete without an attempt to pull out some of the significant threads for the future. Housing debates are beginning to focus on several long-term questions which are predicted to challenge housing policy well into the twenty-first century ( 2000).

 

Housing policy focused on the development of the public sector, catering for those who needed assistance to obtain a decent home. This derived from the belief that the public sector would break the link between low income and poor housing. This approach underpinned housing policy during a period of tenure adjustment, as the dominance of the private rented market was replaced by the dominance of owner occupation. ( 2000). Housing policy changes depending on the situation in a certain environment.  It changes depending on the focus of a government and what priorities it wants to achieve first. The housing policy can affect the service given by a country to its citizen. Housing policies try to give rights to the tenant and the landlord but more rights are said to be given to the tenant. This is the one that causes issues within the apartment.

Tenants and their rights

The motivation for tenants to buy their houses has been a mixture of a positive view of the benefits to be gained from home ownership along with a negative view of the consequences of remaining in the council sector. Clearly many tenants can take advantage of large discounts to buy their homes at well below the market value. The 1980s and early 1990s have been a period of considerable change for public rented housing (,  &  1997). The government has been successful in its attempts to reduce capital expenditure on council housing and to reduce central and local revenue subsidies. There has been a growing fragmentation of the provision of public rented housing with the role of councils as providers in decline and housing associations, tenant management co-operatives and other forms of rented housing on the increase (,  &  1997).

 

 Privatization has taken place, most notably through the sale of council housing, but also through measures such as the use of loans from private financial institutions in housing association developments and the introduction of compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) into housing management (,  &  1997). Increasingly, the market and its values have penetrated the provision of rented housing, shown most clearly by reforms in the housing association sector, but also by CCT and other changes in council housing management such as the increasing use of performance measurement. There has been increasing involvement of tenants as users of the service in the management of public rented housing through an increase in co-operatives and in other tenant participation initiatives (,  &  1997). The motivations of housing managers for involving tenants were a mixture of self-interest and recognition of the knowledge and rights of tenants. Tenant participation was widely seen to lead to a better housing management service and in the long term to make housing managers’ jobs easier by reducing management problems on estates by providing a means of communication to managers as well as changing the attitudes of tenants. At the same time, enlisting the support of tenants was seen by many as crucial to the survival of council housing and, therefore, to the continuance of their own jobs (,  &  1997).

 

The balance in the motivations of housing managers between self-interest and altruism was different for individual housing managers and there were variations between different types of authority. In traditional authorities there was less emphasis on the rights of tenants than in the other kinds of authorities (,  &  1997). The tenants have rights on their privacy, landlord retaliation, sudden increase in rents, protection on their right to organize, unfair evictions. The rights of tenants protect them from landlord neglect and it gives them the chance to have a secure and affordable housing.  These rights give the tenant fair chance against the landlord who sometimes abuses their ownership of the property. These rights ensure that a tenant will not be removed or evicted from his/her place without due process or just cause.

Tenants having too many rights

Shared management can be described as liberal reform in which resident participation is encouraged. It usually occurs when a housing authority supports the concept of resident management. Although resident management is very popular, it is not the only option for residents who are seeking something other than conventional housing authority management. Two other approaches increased resident participation and community based management--should be considered. Most public housing sites have resident councils whose role is to advise management on issues relating to operation and improvement ( 1993).Proponents of resident ownership of public housing rarely are specific as to what they mean by ownership. While some units may be converted to condominiums, it is likely that most conversions will be to cooperatives. The concept of limited equity is usually promoted as the way to ensure that a cooperative developed for low-income households remains that way. In limited equity situations, the price of the cooperative share is controlled and usually allowed to raise only a small amount over time ( 1993).

 

While this helps to keep the housing affordable, it eliminates a major benefit of ownership: the ability to build equity. Thus, residents of the cooperative may gain few advantages not obtainable through resident management alone. In fact, they could be at a disadvantage should conversion to a cooperative be accompanied by loss of federal subsidies and other forms of support. Resident management, with or without ownership, may not work in all circumstances, but there is no reason to reject it totally. Many residents and developments are better off because of it, and there is nothing to suggest that it cannot be successful at other developments under the right conditions. Some community activists believe the current emphasis on resident management is causing public housing residents to become confused and to associate the goals of community and personal growth exclusively with managing a development ( 1993). They suggest that housing authorities and policymakers are using resident management as a means of diverting attention from the serious state of public housing and from their responsibilities to provide decent housing for the poor. Some professional housing managers also believe the emphasis on resident management is misplaced. Learning to run a public housing site successfully is not easy. It is the second skill resident leaders must master ( 1993).

 

Tenants have too many rights and not enough responsibilities. They are given much privilege but fewer responsibilities. It shows that the policy of the government is more concentrated for the benefit of the tenants. This should not be case; there should be a shared resident participation between the landlord and the tenant. Both the tenant and the landlord can help one another to make the rented property a place that will give them comfort and satisfaction of their need for a housing facility. The tenant should help in maintaining and repairing the rented property. They should pay the different debts and arrears they owe the landlords on time. The tenant should make sure that they will not commit any acts that will cause problems in the rented property.

References

The Fraternal Social Contract

The Fraternal Social Contract: on Feminism and Community Formation

 

In recent years, the overwhelming growth of literature on feminist political idea paved way to the reassessment of a number of fundamental categories of political debate. This is directed to its attempt to illustrate not only that the standard of enormous collection of texts that has analytically excluded women, but similarly the very terms of contemporary political thought that are proven not to be gender neutral as it support the gender construction of society and the upholding of male supremacy (1994). The social contract theory has predominantly attracted significant amount of attention of few feminist theorists because of its formation of the natural condition of man as being one of freedom and impartiality especially in its relation to the politics of the subject and individual identity. This is where feminists have made the most significant and radical challenges to contractarian modes of thought.

Meanwhile, feminism is equally recognized as a rational loyalty and a political movement that primarily works for the fairness among women and eventually ends gender prejudice in all forms (1998). Primarily, feminism is consisted and covered by the experiences of women. It argues on the social relations between women and society. As feminists oppose on the idea of gender discrimination and sexism, they are motivated to do specific actions that will fight such treatment.  (1995) states that majority of feminists disagree on the branding that dictates what it means to be a woman or a man and what social and political implications gender has or should have. Nonetheless, the feminist inquiry is motivated in the pursuit of impartiality may it be on the social, cultural, and political perspectives as well as community formation.

For many critics with feminism ideology of the contract practice, for instance, , the complete notion of society as a contractual union between free and equal subjects is part of the problem that has to be critically addressed if women are to liberate themselves from the male domination in contemporary societies.  (1988) argues on civil contractarian arguments while dispensing with patriarchalism and merely replaced it with what she calls fraternal patriarchy, which continues to deny full equality and status to women. The classic contractarians namely  are criticized not merely because they overtly barred women from various rational subjects who could consent to political rule (1994). The idea of the person as a free and equal subject is a peculiarly male category for the reason that it is conceptualized around a pre-existing sexual distribution of labour in which women are sent off to the tasks and responsibilities of the domestic sphere, thus freeing men to exercise their free wills in the public or political realm. It is only because of this pre-existing domestic subordination of women that male subjects could be free and equal subjects.

Discussing the issue of feminism poses a question on whether or not women should abandon their long-established roles for the purposes of self-fulfillment. By tradition, women are expected to spend and devote their time, effort, and attention to their family unit. She obeys and respects her spouse, protects her children, and manages the chores. On the contrary, men are considered as the chief of the family who holds the authority to demand or order other members of the kin. Men, being the master of the household, controls major areas of decision-making and taking and everyone are expected to obey his given rules. In community formation, it is not important as to whom among the men or women should be followed but it is what they can do that matters. In this case, it is indicated that most feminist leaders are women but it is also important to note that not all feminists are women. A significant number of feminists raise the issue of men being feminist leaders. In here, some contradictions are imposed particularly the disagreement of some feminist advocates that men should not be leaders in the movement because men, having been identified and known to belligerently search for positions of power or express the agenda within a leadership chain of command, would apply this inclination that will create a certain effect on feminist organizations (1994). Others also argue on the fact that women’s natural deferment to men hinders the development and/or expression of their own self-leadership especially in the situations wherein they are working excessively close with men, thus posing the risk of intimate or personal relationship and submission. Given the said compelling reasons, there are also other feminists who recognize and inquire about the support of men (1992). This line of thinking contributed to the dynamic and multifaceted nature as well as application of the theories on gender egalitarianism, specifically on the aspect of feminism.

A development of some of these strands of criticism is to be found in the 'different voice' feminism of  (1978) and  (1982). The theories of these feminists debate on the idea of universal moral psychology particularly in relation to the categories of men on justice, rights, and principles. They offer an account of those categories and contrast them with women’s ‘ethic of care’ as based in the sorts of empathy, proximity and relatedness. These theories, which are most of the time considered as psychological in nature, raise the possibility of essentialist theories. According to  (1994), “If women are after all 'naturally' prone to exhibit what might uncharitably be called 'domestic' virtues then surely it could be argued they are best suited to the domestic realm, unlike men who are naturally suited to the public realm or politics” (). This is barely the kind of conclusion that even 'different voice' feminists wish to come up with, even if some did not only argued for the change of the public sphere through 'ethic of care' but also to the domestic realm that have to be given on a higher condition and be seen as a more attractive option by modern women.

In community formation, it is acknowledge by difference feminists like Iris  (1990) and  (1992), to realize authentic emancipation from the established male governing power structures of current society, what is considered necessary is not simply gender neutral policies of redistribution, but a reconsideration of the goals of political theory addressed to the tribulations of institutional control. This approach has taken several feminist theorists into the area of democratic theory and draw against the terms of liberal political theory highlighting on contract and objective agreement between the same subjects. With this, equal rights are of diminutive importance in a community wherein the implementation of those rights is itself aggravated by the structures of gender ascendancy in contemporary social order (1993).

However, the fact remains that worldwide inequality is still rampant and experienced by a majority number of women. Unlike men, women cannot focus on their careers just the way men do. This is because their family should come first before their careers. This may or may not be their personal choice but because it is normally dictated by the demands of the society. They are ordered to do so or oblige to comply; in return, creating a certain extent of dilemma on whether or not they will leave their definite roles and obligations or just follow their quest for individual self-fulfillment by having specialized responsibilities to other field instead of their immediate environment.  (1995) deliberately acknowledge that the feminist ideology will show the way of a strong political development through women in power. But  predicted that the idea of this development still depends on how women identify with and remain loyal to the principles of the theory especially now that there are a lot of views about feminism as similarly incorporated with other line of principles. For that very reason, feminism is said to be conflict-ridden. When women are subjugated particularly on disparate treatment present in the society hey belong, there are assured implications of such truth behind every issue – neither good nor bad. This is the rationale behind the notion of Marxism Feminism which believes that women are oppressed in a concealed capitalism. A Marxist Feminist is familiar with women as oppressed victims, and this oppression is attributed to the capitalist/private property system. By all means, proponents of this principle firmly adhere and insist that the simplest way to stop the oppression among women is to bring down the capitalist system.  (1975) presents an explanation of socialist feminism to address the argument of Marxist Feminist and this is the union between Marxism and radical feminism, with Marxism being the governing partner. Marxists frequently describe themselves "radical", except that they make use of the word to refer to an entirely dissimilar "root" of society, which is the economic system. In general, women’s right to use of power inside the public sphere has constantly been one of the most important objectives of the feminist movement. With this, community formation is an inside agenda.

 

 

 

NUISANCE AND TRESPASS

Private and Public Nuisance and Trespass

            There are nuisance in our environment that obstructs the daily activities of people whether at home or in the workplace. According to  (2007) there are two kinds of nuisance in the environment and these are the public and private nuisance. A private nuisance is the “unlawful interference with a person’s use or enjoyment of land or some right over or in connection with it,” usually private nuisance can be divided into two categories and these are the deeds involving damage to the physical land of the claimant and the deeds involving obstruction with the claimant’s utilisation or enjoyment of the land ( and , 2003). On the other hand, public nuisance is “an unreasonable interference with a right to the general public,” this type of nuisance covers various crimes that may threaten the safety, health, comfort or welfare of the general public (, 2007). Trespass to another land means “directly entering upon land, or remaining upon land, or placing or projecting any object upon land in the possession of the claimant, in each case without unlawful justification” (, 2005).   

Nuisance and trespass could sometimes be confused by ordinary individuals. Plaintiffs usually mixed up these two when filing a case against a company. Apart from knowing the definitions of nuisance and trespass, individuals must distinguish its differences.  (2007) stated that nuisance occurs from an allegation of damage to the property or an individual; aside from physical damage it could also include harm to enjoyment of the property. On the other hand, trespass seeks harm or damages for a physical act of entering in premises without the permission of the owner or manager of the property.   

            This paper examines the case of David’ family versus Harrington and Nephew Limited, a reasonable discussion of the principles will be done wherein there is a clear identification and explanation of legal problems.

 

            The court in the district of Edward’s Industrial State in the United Kingdom could held that the discharge of factory of the Harrington and Nephew Limited manufacturing facility and the succeeding amassment of dusts on the property, as well as, noises during night time did not give rise to the claims of public nuisance and trespass by the family of David. However, their claim could be a basis for the claim of negligence or private nuisance.

Facts

            The defendant Harrington and Nephew Ltd. owned and operated a manufacturing plant of pre-cast concrete unites on High field roads in the Edward’s Industrial Estate. The company is answerable to the requirement of the United Kingdom environmental statutes. Harrington and Nephew Limited was recently successful in wining contracts which results to the round the clock operations of the factory. As a result of the operations, the factory of Harrington and Nephew Ltd. discharges the by product of the manufacturing process which have negative impact on the health of David’s family, as well as the environment of the community. David’s wife Aimee developed an allergy to the dust, thus she uses inhalers to aid her breathing. The night operations of the plant have cause David and his family to lose sleep during night time. The plants in their backyard have also suffered from the operations of the plant, the rose tree which was given to them 15 years ago died due to dust emitted by the factory according to a horticulture expert. The chemical dusts that are discharge by the plant also has bad effect on the paintwork of Wally’s car, the son of David, because of that Wally immediately went to the manager’s office of the factory without appointment and permission. However, the manager was not available and the attitude and manner of Wally disturbed the secretary that she immediately asked Wally to leave the premises. But Wally refused; his resistance resulted to a broken window.

            The management of Harrington and Nephew Limited filed a suit to the family of David, claiming damages to property and trespass. The company based their claims on the theories of trespass and private nuisance. On the other hand, David’s family argued that the company is also liable for the damages in their properties, health and environment.

            Harrington and Nephew Ltd. argued that the claims of David’s family must be dismissed because the family did not support any evidences that pointed out that the factory is the main reason why there are damages to their environment, property and health. In addition, David’s family was the only one who filed a suit against the company therefore the amount of damages that is supposed to be the factory’s fault is only minimal.

 

 

Trespass

            Trespass is the wrongful interference in an unauthorised property of another person (, 2002). The company is claiming that Wally trespassed the in the premises of the management office of the factory because he did not ask any permission or appointment from the manager or the secretary. The court could observe that Wally was liable for trespassing because he entered the property of the company remained within the premises and he failed to remove himself even if there is already an order (, 2007). Aside from trespassing, Wally is also liable for damage to properties because he intentionally damaged a window within the premises of the factory without the consent of the secretary. The Harrington and Nephew Limited must only prove that Wally’s act was with deliberate intention and done with awareness that the act would result in a broken window. For this reason Wally may not defend his action in trespass by establishing the truth that he acted with a belief that his actions were authorised by the complainant or that another owner of the property have given him the consent to trespass. If the secretary can prove that Wally’s act resulted in harm or damage to properties then Wally will be charged of liability.

            To counter the suit filed by the company, David could also claim that Harrington and Nephew Limited committed trespass with their property because the dusts and chemicals discharged by the factory have piled up in their property. However, if the court could notice that if the dusts and chemical particles unintentionally invaded the property of David’s family then it cannot fall under trespass. Just like in the case of  vs.  (2001) the court observed that the invasion of dust and chemical smut in the property is a nuisance rather than trespass since dust particles is basically ambient. Therefore the court could dismiss the claim that the dusts and smuts in the property of David’s family falls under trespass but instead it falls under the category of nuisance. Just like in the case of  versus  (1959) wherein the Martin family filed a suit claiming that the gaseous and particulate fluorides from the aluminium smelter of Reynolds Metal Company settled on their property, however the Supreme Court rejected the claim that trespass involved invasion of a thing such as dust.

Nuisance

            The court could examine the claim of David’s family that the dust, smuts, and noise in the context of the two types of nuisance and these are the public and private nuisance. Public nuisance is an act not authorised by the law or omits to remove a legal duty if the effect of the act is to threaten the life, property, health and comfort of the general public or community (, 2005). While private nuisance is a tort that protects the tenants of the land from damages due to illogical interference through excessive noise, pollution, dusts, etc. (, 2002). The could court point out that David and his family did not set facts that support the claim for public nuisance since they are the only family in the community that filed a complaint against the company. In order for a public nuisance suit could be claimed by the family, the complainants can be an agency or an organisation that brings the suit in behalf of the plaintiffs, a private group that has suffered damages, in the case of David’s family, if there are other individuals that have the same problems with them then they could file a lawsuit against the company, and a representative of the group that could bring the law suit under the government law.

            Private nuisance has four elements according to  and these are:

Unreasonable interference- if the private nuisance interferes with the enjoyment of the property of the owners without reason. In the case of David’s family the noise and the pollution emitted from the factory could be an unreasonable interference.

Current Possessory Interest- it can be brought to the court by the current owner of the property. David and his family have the right to claim that the factory creates private nuisance on their property.

  Intentional or Unintentional Conduct- the company could be liable for private nuisance due to the invasion to the enjoyment of the private land because of a company’s own interests. The invasion could be unreasonable and intentional and unintentional and could be held liable under the rules of reckless conduct or dangerous activities. David and his family could claim that the act of Harrington and Nephew Limited is intentional if they could prove that the emission of dusts and noise is intended and have no desire to discharge it elsewhere wherein it could not affect other people. 

            On the other hand, the court could point out that the family’s claim supports private nuisances if the facts that they will show in the court are:

Physical invasion intruded their property rights- the physical invasion such as the dusts and smuts interfered their property rights because the family cannot function normally due to the noise and dusts emitted by the factory.

Harm occurred due to invasion- the dusts and chemical smuts harmed the health of Aimee because she obtained breathing problems which resorted to the use of inhalers. In addition, the plants in their backyard, particularly the rose plant died due to the invasion as observed by horticulturist.

Harrington and Nephew Limited caused the invasion- the company is liable to the private nuisance because their factory is the only one situated in the Highfield Road and it is the only company that emits dusts and chemicals.

The operations of Harrington and Nephew Limited were either unreasonable or intentional or negligent or ultra hazardous- the operations of Harrington and Nephew Limited was unintentional, however it was negligent since it harmed a family.

            In the case of private nuisance Harrington and Nephew Limited could be liable if the complainant which in this case is David and his family, could prove that the nuisance actions of the company is intentional through conclusion drawn from evidence that Harrington and Nephew Limited knows that the dusts and chemical smuts discharged in its chimney will most likely land on another property ( v. ., 1985).   However if the court recognizes the doctrine of nuisance per se which states that it is an act that is a nuisance all the time and conditions (, 2001), the court could state that the family of David could not claim that Harrington and Nephews Limited is the main reason for their interference of their enjoyment in their property since the company does not manufacture all the time and under any circumstances.

Negligence

            However the family could state a claim of negligence if David and his family could show that Harrington and Nephew Limited has a duty to the residents of the Highfield Road, the company have violated that duty, the violation caused harm to the family and David’s family suffered damages. In this case the company is liable since they violated the duty to utilise diligence and care when it operated the facility and the company should have known that it would have improper implications to the residents and would cause invasion of noise and air pollutants to the residents and their properties. If David’s family could prove the allegation then the company would be liable. However, if Harrington and Nephew Limited could prove that the company have complied with the rules and regulations of the manufacturing process then the suit would be dismissed.

Conclusion

            Harrington and Nephew Limited could file a lawsuit against David’s family, particularly Wally for trespassing and damage to properties. However, the defence of David’s family could hold the company liable due to the private nuisance of the manufacturing process of the factory on their property. The Harrington and Nephew Limited could be liable to the damages on the property of David because of private nuisances. But the company could escape liability is they will argue that the law authorizes the activity of the plant or the factory. However, Wally David’s son could also be accountable to what he did inside the management office of Harrington and Nephew Limited.

References:

Regent's Park - The Architecture and Planning of Regent's Park

 

Regent’s park is truly an epitome’ of the history of art and architecture that brings beauty and life as of today’s generation. In London, the architecture and planning of the Regent park started and that there affects the development of capital as projected and carried to completion as the plan for the park creation was possible for the realization of the metropolitan improvements of Regency – being the plan which embraced the Regent's Park layout as well as the Regent Street as well as the cutting of the Regent's Canal, with its branch and basin to serve Regent's Park. The wholeness of the colossal plan have provided useful spine to London's far-reaching effect expansion being carried out by the genius . There was the success to seize and unite number of opportunities which presented with blessed promptitude beginning the Regency and that has set out liberal and enticing program for the development of the Park, relating the project that will extend the Park to Carlton Home. Aside, there was indication that presented something innovative – the high picturesque conception of a garden city for the aristocracy along with panoramas showing a composition of alluring groves and elegant architecture of Parisian character. ‘’During the year 1811, the Prince and Nash were clearly the moving powers in the planning scheme. The Prince talked enthusiastically about eclipsing Napoleon's Paris, while Nash designed a Royal pleasaunce, for Regent's Park and planned Regent Street as a "Royal mile" from Carlton House with the promoters of a canal scheme and introduced a stretch of it picturesquely into the Park.’’ (1935)

‘’The design for the Park was elaborated as well as dramatic, the Villas are dotted everywhere in woody grooves. The guinguette has a strip of formal water in front of it, while the arms of a serpentine lake embrace the centre of the area in great double circus with a National Valhalla in the middle. Pound the margins are terraces and in the south-east corner is the marketing and working class quarter. Where the southward road crosses the New Road is another vast circus, with a church in the middle. Thus, as a piece of planting it is bald and uninteresting, lacking as it does the rich gardens and groves of the forty or fifty intended villas. Its architectural beauties are confined to the margins with their noble approaches and the belt of terraces, interrupted across the north, so that the view of Hampstead and Highgate should be preserved  The Regent's Park terraces are greatly loved today more so than ever they were when they were new, when their shortcomings in detail and finish grated on the susceptibilities of critics bred in an exacting school. The truth is that these buildings, careless and clumsy though they are in many ways, have an extravagant scenic character which, perceived through nostalgic mists of time, makes them irresistible. Carved pediments, rich in allegory, top the trees; massive pavilions, standing forward like the corps de garde of Baroque chateaux are linked to the main structures by triumphal arches or columnar screens; each terrace stretches its length in all the pride of unconfined symmetry – magnificent.’’ (1946 )

 

Source: (1946). Georgian London Charles Scribner\'s Sons

 

 

 

Where the eye apprehends a mansion of great distinction, supported by lesser mansions and service quarters, the mind must interpret it as a block of thin houses, with other blocks of thin houses carrying less ornament or none at all. The sham is flagrant and absurd. The terraces are architectural jokes and though Nash was serious enough in his intention, the effect is an odd combination of fantasy and bathos which only the retrospect of a century can forgive. The earliest architectural feature of Regent's Park is the lovely, unpretentious, neatly detailed Park Crescent, the design of the square is less happy, the façades being crowded and coarse in design, but the arrangement as a whole, considered as a formal approach from a thoroughfare to a landscaped park is admirable and the simple appropriateness of Park Crescent with its Ionic colonnades is beyond criticism. With the development of Regent's Park proceeded the cutting of Regent Street. This great thoroughfare is unique in the history of town-planning. Its amazingly successful blend of formality and picturesque opportunism could have happened nowhere and at no time but in England of the period of the picturesque. It might be said of Regent Street as Rasmussen said of the Adelphi, that it was "not only a dream of antique architecture" but "just as much a finance-fantasia over risk and profit"; the financier was an artist and the artist a financier. To some extent it was a masterly, calculated solution; but also to some extent it was a no less masterly improvisation. ( 1946)

 

‘’The central pediments are redundant, though the florid ornament they contain is excellent of its kind. The attics on the end pavilions are over-emphatic and inappropriate to the academic character of the design as a whole. The Corinthian columns are sloppily executed and lack the precision essential to the effective use of that order. The story of Regent’s Park and Regent Street as official building projects of the Crown goes back though it is evident that the Regent’s Park idea had been growing in his mind for some time. This is proved by the existence of two long panoramic sketches for buildings in and around the park, buildings which do not connect with any known plan and which must be earlier than 1810. Nash has kept the Bath tradition well to the fore in approaching the park problem. The double circus he planned for the high ground in the centre is an obvious theft from the St John's Wood scheme there is Park Crescent and the terraces with their highly architectural symmetry derive ultimately from John Wood's north side of Queen Square, Bath. The Regent’s Park conception was far more than a continuation of this excellent native tradition.’’ (1946)

 

 

 

 

‘’Nevertheless, Regent’s Park cannot be explained without some inquiry into the lofty and dramatic comprehensiveness which characterised its beginnings. If taken into Ledoux's book came into Nash's hands, it is not improbably the source of that feeling for the play of social factors as determinants of design which informs the original Regent’s Park project and makes it something wholly new in the history of English town-planning. Today, Regent’s Park is fragmentary and dissolute reflection of the brave image of the year 1812 London’’. ( 1946 )

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: (1960). The Architecture of John Nash, Studio

 

 

Source: Terence Davis (1960). The Architecture of John Nash, Studio

 

 

 

 

FIRST PLAN FOR REGENT'S PARK

Source:  (1960). The Architecture of John Nash, Studio

 

 

Source:  (1960). The Architecture of John Nash, Studio

 

Regent Street, LONDON 170

Source:  (1960). The Architecture of John Nash, Studio

 

 

WATERLOO PLACE, LOWER REGENT STREET, LONDON

Source: (1960). The Architecture of John Nash, Studio

 

 

 

 

‘’Mentioned it again in connection with ‘Capability’ Brown, who reduced the new irregular landscaping to a system of his own in which the main elements were clumps, belts, and lakes distributed in an otherwise close-shaven terrain. Finally, we noted that Sir William Chambers, in his mockserious Dissertation on what purported to be Chinese gardening, ridiculed Brown and opened the door to further reconsideration of the subject. The style and composition of the house remained unaffected by the changing notions of how its setting should be composed. True, there was the problem of disposing of the service quarters so as not to obtrude them in a landscape so carefully groomed. Brown, for instance, liked to sink them under the house; others hid the service wing behind shrubs, there was always the question of ornamental buildings within the landscape  temples but although carefully set relative to the pictorial conception of the scene, were not necessarily modulated to the key of the landscape and during the last phase of the Georgian art of landscape that architecture began to feel the effects of the picturesque idea. It was only then, indeed, that 'picturesque' began to take on precise meaning only then that an aesthetic of the picturesque, charging the word with a much weightier significance than it had hitherto possessed, was evolved. 'Picturesque' had meant, roughly, the kind of landscape which recalled landscape-paintings, something more abstract than that, as when Robert Adam defined his conception of 'movement' in architecture as being calculated greatness of the picturesque of the composition'. Moreover, Repton was friendly with both Knight and Price, and although the views of the three men never precisely coincided and, indeed, diverged considerably as time went on, he can be considered, with them, as one of the chief protagonists of the movement.’’ ( 1530 to 1830) ‘’Throughout the nineteenth century, the leading landscape architects and park advocates believed that parks were important instruments of enlightenment and social control. Consequently, they praised and promoted parks for their healthgiving characteristics and character-molding capabilities, landscape architects used these arguments to convince city governments to invest in elaborate urban parks. The escalating tensions between the middle and working class led to working class activism for increased access to park space and for greater latitude in defining working class leisure behavior.’’ (1999 )

 

 

‘’Olmsted and other park advocates also believed in the restorative and calming powers of parks, and in their ability to help the classes bond, thereby, reducing their antagonisms towards each other. Olmsted thought the parks would inspire communal feelings among all urban classes, muting resentments over disparities of wealth and fashion. Gregarious recreation, the coming together of thousands of people of various walks of life in the parks, was the remedy for the anomie, alienation and hard selfishness of urban life (1999 , 1967;  1976;  1997;  1868; 1853). ‘’Recognizing that such funding schemes could exacerbate inequalities and limit access to urban parks, Olmsted opposed the private financing of parks. Olmsted declared: The enjoyment of the choicest natural scenes in the country and the means of recreation connected with them is thus a monopoly, in a very peculiar manner, of a very few, very rich people. The great mass of society, including those to whom it would be of the greatest benefit, is excluded from it private parks can never be used by the mass of the people in any country nor by any considerable number even of the rich, except by the favor of a few, and in dependence on them... The establishment by government of great public grounds for the free enjoyment of the people under certain circumstances, is thus justified as a political duty’’. ( 1999 , 1865)

 

‘’It therefore results that the enjoyment of scenery employs the mind without fatigue and yet exercises it, tranquilizes it and yet enlivens it; and thus, through the influence of the mind over the body, gives the effect of refreshing rest and reinvigorating to the whole system’’. ( 1999; 1865) ‘’Olmsted sought to use subtle designs in his parks to create this mood. However, it was not Olmsted's intent to recreate the grand and sensational scenery. Instead he intended to use the subtlety of domestic arrangements to stimulate the unconscious, and elevate people to higher plane of thought and clear the way to explore other thoughts and feelings’’. (1999, 1997)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of the above:

Landscape Architecture Guide – Garden Visit and Travel Guide Gardenvisit.com Garden History Reference Encyclopedia Tom Turner

Being one of the finest urban park which launched Frederick Law Olmsted in profession of landscape architecture. New York's Central Park was an example of brilliant landscape planning: it was the right type of space, created in the right place at the right time. The best usage of Central Park is as a greenway leading from the Millennium Village to North Greenwich Underground Station.

 

 

 

The Central Park on the Greenwich Peninsula

Source of the above illustrations: Landscape Architecture Guide – Garden Visit and Travel Guide Gardenvisit.com Garden History Reference Encyclopedia Tom Turner

 

The Royal Park encircled by Regency terraces that were seen across the lake within lawns and trees as Nash's planning and Repton's landscape conception had profound influence on 20^th century planning.

 

 

 

Source of the above illustrations: Landscape Architecture Guide – Garden Visit and Travel Guide Gardenvisit.com Garden History Reference Encyclopedia Tom Turner

 

 

How would the classical sociological theorist of Durkheim explain social change?

 

 

 

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS:

SOCIAL CHANGE ACCORDING TO THE THEORIES OF EMILE DURKHEIM

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

I.      Introduction.. 3

II.     Concept of Social Change.. 4

III.        Emile Durkheim’s Social Theory.. 5

A.    The Concept of a Social Fact. 6

B.    Division of Labour. 7

C.    Functionalism.. 8

D.    Collective Conscience. 9

IV.       Social Differentiation and Integration.. 10

A.    Concept of Mechanical Solidarity. 11

B.    Concept of Organic Solidarity. 12

V.    Implications of Social Change According to Durkheim.. 12

VI.       Conclusion.. 13

VII.      References.. 14

 

I.              Introduction

There is this unending cliché about permanent things and the need for change. Tiring as it may seem hearing that same truism over and over again, it actually accurate. However, one must also see that in order for one to develop, change is indeed necessary. It is in this reality that contemporary theories relating to change has considerably created, eventually evolved, and even ingrained in our social consciousness. One such views of social change are conveyed in the theories forwarded by Emile Durkheim, considered as one of the founding fathers of modern sociology. Social scientists like that of Durkheim have been instrumental for documenting the established social patterns and social structures. These learned theories are then put into good use from just employing it in classroom discussions such as to encourage critical thinking to being consulted in formulating policies that indeed possess intentions for actual social change. The following study is going to discuss the work of Durkheim and its effect to the interpretation of social change and social transformation. The basis of the arguments is to be found on the classical works of Durkheim. Moreover, a majority of the claims and observations will similarly be based on the consultation with academic and scholarly journals relating to sociology, social change, and social transformation. All in all the discussions will be based on the interpretation of the researcher on the implications of Durkheim’s theory to the concept of social change.

 

II.            Concept of Social Change

Theories of social change have become considerably varied as it is one of the most studied topics in years as early as the 16^th and 17^th centuries. Theorists have pointed out a considerable number of causes and possible implications of social change. Aside from the views of, there are several other theorists who have addressed the issue of social change. To illustrate, Adam Smith have presented the principle of supply and demand to illustrate the possible causes of changes in society. However, this view is rather converging towards the economic aspect of the social spectrum. (1999)  Another theorist, , has considered the factor of population as the root cause of social change. Specifically, pointed out that the inability of man to restrain himself from the urge of reproduction has its dangers and thus subjects society to some changes. (1994) On the other hand, later scholars like Karl Marx have considered social classes as the main catalysts of social change. . It is this theory that Marx revealed his enthusiasm to the contradiction in society, particularly of those existing in poverty, the working class (proletariat) and the ruling class (bourgeois). (1994) The relationships between the classes are predetermined by the means of production present in a specific period. Nonetheless, there will come a time that these elements would not be complementary on the forces of production. (2000) Max Weber’s view on the other hand sees society and its history as a sequence composed of modes of production. Basically, the social structure and frame work according to him is based on social actions held by man. (2003) Specifically, he indicated that the motivations on these actions are actually the core elements that one should understand in order to effectively analyse a society.

 As seen in the views of the certain theorists above, the differences of their claims present the realisation that social change and social transformation is somewhat an inevitability. Though there has been some divergence in the perceived causes among the theories, all claim that the social structures inherent in society has a considerable influence involving social change.   

III.           Emile Durkheim’s Social Theory

The major theories of Durkheim are generally classified as the Structural-Functionalist Approach. This is the paradigm of thinking prevalent among academics and scholars on the time of Durkheim. Basically, this line of thinking is what is normally called the social systems paradigm. In this context, the major theories based on this paradigm tend to base its assumptions on the “nonmaterial” elements of society. In considering these discussions, the theories that lay ground on this paradigm similarly tends to adhere to discussing the universalistic standards present in a social order. (2002) It is in these elements that the theories find the grounds for social action among those immersed in the said social order.  

In the case of Durkheim, the issues of social stability and its maintenance was the focus of his theories. Moreover he pointed out the need for solidarity in society which he classified into mechanical and organic. These are to be discussed in the later part of the paper. Instead, a description of the basic terms and assumptions made by Durkheim will be presented first.  

A.   The Concept of a Social Fact

During the heyday of Durkheim, there is yet to be an established concept of sociology or even the basic conception of sociology. In its place, Durkheim placed the term “social fact” in his works to denote his sociological ideas. He defined a social fact as "way of doing, thinking and feeling capable of exercising over the individual an external constraint." (2002)

Later on in his studies, he has made it a point to equate this concept of a social fact to today’s widely held sociological term “institutions.” In any case, the context to which Durkheim uses this term is to basically reflect all that is present is society. He once claimed that “a social fact should be sought among the social facts preceding it." (1981) This means that every element that could be attributed to the social milieu is composed essentially of social facts.

Therefore, in looking at the logic presented by Durkheim regarding social facts, then every existing social fact is based on an initially existing social fact. This presents some similarities with the other claims provided for by other theorists. This means that in studying the issue of social change, an initially existing social fact may have triggered it. And to understand the existing social fact, then the initially existing social fact should be considered as well.  

 

B.   Division of Labour

In the work of, he indicated the existence of institutions of integration. These institutions include the social division of labour and the law. (2002) In this category, the employed context view of division of labour tends to manifest some the equivalence to natural law which then requires shared reliance based on his concept of solidarity. (1993)  

As stated in his works, the division of labour in society is considerably more encompassing as compared to the established laws. This means that though it is not codified and is rather implied in a sense, this division of labour has a great effect on society as a whole. Basically, this is based on the reason that this division of labour has the capacity to assimilate the individuals into a single group forming a community. However, this could also work contrary to that scenario.

However, the concept proposed by is unfortunately still imperfect. There are still drawbacks in implementing such a rather efficient theory. To illustrate, the presence of division of labour could similarly discriminate people. (2002,) The presence of class and social standing tends to provide a rather complicated situation if one tends to implement this theory. Thus, it seems that the social occupation of people, through the division of labour, thus could both build and destroy a community. 

 

C.   Functionalism

The core of the theory of Durkheim is the concept of functionalism. Specifically, this denotes that the society is an amalgamation of combined parts working towards a single goal, which is basically continued existence. (2002) In his work, Durkheim frequently uses a correspondence with the human body and the workings in society. (2002)The concept of functionalism starts on the premise that society is dynamic and animated such that any individual person is not above it or could be able to manipulate it. Nevertheless, it also claims that the circumstances surrounding a single individual in the population manifest a microcosm of the entire society as a whole. (2002) Along with this hypothesis, it is important that a society possess an agreement in the principles and aspiration such that anomie could be averted.

 Another major claim provided by the theory of functionalism is its capability to internally repair itself. According to the claims of Durkheim, society is a continuous set of organic developments comes back to its original equilibrium regardless of any more changes. (2000) This means that the internal dynamics of a particular society will be able to transcend any disturbance of the harmony of the exiting solidarities of the people in it. In the article of (2000) he viewed religion in the context of the functionalist theory indicating that the supernatural elements that is included in the institution is inferior to the idea of it being a socially constructed reality to maintain social order.

 

D.   Collective Conscience

Another important element of the functionalist theory made by Durkheim is the existence of a collective conscience. This is basically rooted from the set of rituals in which the society possesses. (2002) This item is basically important to the subsequent discussions given that the society’s collective conscience is considered the “glue that maintains social solidarity.” (1994)

This indicates that these rituals, especially those held sacred by society; represent the factor that connects the society as a whole. In a sense, it is used as a means to jog the public’s memory on the identity of society. The works of Durkheim categorized these rituals as sacred and profane. (2002) And essentially, these reflect the society’s collective representation.

This set of interpretations means that these reflect the actual image of society, including its flaws and exiting social problems. Durkheim further claimed that with the help of the existing and established social institutions, these collective representations could be developed, passed on, and even be shared by the entire society. (2002) An actual representation of a collective conscience is seen in the use of laws of the land. (1990)  

 

IV.          Social Differentiation and Integration

The concept of social differentiation and social integration tends to focus on the theory of Durkheim on social change. These are the basic factors that tend to influence society’s capacity to improve or devolve as it is subjected to certain developments in the social facts present. In this context, Durkheim claims that the existence of social differentiation is rather an offshoot of the division of labour in society. Turner even pushed it further that the existence of division of labour in a society tends to realise the concept of social differentiation as well. (1990) His study claimed that “social differentiation is caused by the increased moral density that follows from escalated material density.” This means that the issue of social differentiation is triggered by an initial increase in the material elements present in society. Then this constitute a chain reaction where the moral element held within a society similarly takes some form of alteration to conform with the held changes in the material components.

(1990) furthers his claims relating to social differentiation as a means that triggers an increase in the need to struggle for existence. This implies that with the emergence of this social differentiation, change is to be expected. Thus a change in the “nature of integration in social systems” is also seen as an offshoot of this phenomenon. () In the same way, the change comes when the pressure becomes so unbearable that “decrease in the volume, intensity, and determinateness of the collective conscience.” () If these required changes are not met, then society is bound for disintegration.     

 

A.   Concept of Mechanical Solidarity

This is one of the terms used by Durkheim to describe a social development where the social solidarity is based on the homogenous nature of the elements held within a society. This means that the people are interconnected in some way by resemblances in their work, religion, and way of life. In some studies, this type of social solidarity is seen to be rather inferior to its counterpart, organic solidarity. To illustrate, the article of and (2002) interpreted the work of Dukrheim indicated that the forms of society adhering to descriptions similar to a mechanical solidarity tends to have a propensity to withhold any possibility of implementing the division of labour. On this note, specific societies that implement mechanical solidarity would have been rather mediocre in a sense. (2002, 107) even noted that this type of solidarity is seen in rather crude societies like hordes.      

 

B.   Concept of Organic Solidarity

Durkheim also noted the existence of organic solidarity. This is characterised by the interdependence of the people within the society. This means that there are minimal elements that would appear to be similar with the people in the society. To a certain extent, the specific distinctions and specialisations held by the members tend to highlight this interdependence held in organic solidarity. Moreover, this has been a seen as an improvement from mechanical solidarity. Other studies have distinguished it as a social solidarity present in complex societies.

To a certain degree, this type of solidarity tends to relate this to modern societies. (2000) Thus, seeing in the discussions above, it is seen that Durkheim theorises on the possibility of progression as a basic means of social change. (1993) it appears that he is claiming that for every society that adheres to mechanical solidarity will eventually acquire an organic one.    

 

V.           Implications of Social Change According to Durkheim

The discussions above have presented the stand of Durkheim on the context of social change. It has been established that when the social differentiation is subjected to some really radical changes, that is when certain material elements of society tends to alter, the pressures ensuing from it will inevitably drive change in society. However, there are also other implications to the occurrence of social change.  As implied in the study made by and (2002) social change may create anomie either in the entire society or in several components of it. Any quick changes in the social arrangement that disturbs previous systems in which way of lives are entrenched provide the possibility of anomie taking place.

 

VI.          Conclusion

Emile Durkheim examined the types of solidarity in both traditional and modern forms of social orders. The high group recognitions by components of traditional societies took place for the reason that these individual have similar outlines of work and other worldly encounters. They feel a sense of connection to one another since they think and act in similar patterns. Eventually the Industrial Revolution introduced a new type of solidarity by changing the environment and social constructs by introducing an industrialised society. This spawned the materialisation of specialisation among professionals and technical knowledge was deemed considerably important in society. This structural differentiation of society construed a situation where the people no longer share similar patterns of behaviour or even similar line of thinking. Nevertheless, Durkheim deemed that this social change has triggered a new form of solidarity among the members of society in the form of interdependence. The existence of the specialisation of individual professionals has triggered some sort of struggle to survive with this dependence. This need has formed one of the collective consciousnesses of the modern society.  Therefore for Durkheim, structural differentiation bestows a new means to integrate individuals into a single interdependent culture. As seen in the discussions above, the he used the term mechanical solidarity to denote traditional types of social orders while for modern societies, he used the term organic solidarity. This still reflects his inherent ties with structural functionalism where the parts which initially seen with shared similarities has developed into an entity which need to sustain the interdependence of every part of the in order to survive. In looking at the theory of Dukheim, the established culture in every society is given precedence and value. The established values and principles tend to intensify this connection between the members of society.

 

what are M&S's main organisational challenges of managing the global supply chain necessary to sustain their business strategy?

Managing the Global Supply Chain to Sustain Business Strategy: the case of Marks & Spencer (M&S)

 

 

This paper aims to answer the question: what are M&S's main organisational challenges of managing the global supply chain necessary to sustain their business strategy?

 

Introduction

The various trends in the international marketplace namely globalisation, industrialisation and technological advancement are among the challenges that confront international business management and operations ( 2001; , , and  2003). As expected, the sudden shift in operations of every profit or non-profit organisation is a normal reaction for them to cope up with its impending and constant effects. Among the most compelling reasons on why global organisations chose to deal with such occurrence is competition. Today, the dynamic state of living directs brisk and rigid competition among the various industries in every given economy. The trend is commonly associated with the popular Darwinian adage ‘survival of the fittest, extinction of the weakest’.  (1995) observed the worldwide market in hyper competition condition and its rate as time passes by is escalating because of the intense growth in technology and industry concentration. Granted that such global business phenomena persists, the ultimate endeavour of every organisation to be competitive and superior in the market are the most important things at hand.  Thus, they re-model their corporate marketing and management strategies in order to address the demands of the moment. Apart from ascertaining efficiency in management, profit-directed organisations are also taking into consideration the overall assessment of their organisational systems and standards.

As various operating industries are aiming for competitive advantage and sustainable development among its management and operations, there are numerous actions that are being implemented and directed to the eventual success and growth of the company’s assets. Similarly, globalisation issues increases the pressure among the industries and intensifies market competition. In competition, there is motivation in every business to improve and develop their objectives. For an enterprise to succeed in local or global competition, hence, there is a continuous plan to develop management and marketing techniques such as change and innovation of new products with higher quality than its competitors, efficient management of critical success factors, and others.

 

Company Background

According to the company website, it was in 1894 when Michael Marks created a joint venture with Tom Spencer to enter the retailing business. The first shop opened in 1904 at Cross Arcade in Leeds, West Yorkshire. In 2004, the organization celebrates their 120th anniversary, appoints Stuart Rose as the Chief Executive of Marks & Spencer (M&S) and the head office staff started to move into their new registered office at Waterside House, Paddington, originally headquartered in Baker Street, London for many years. At present, they have over 600 stores worldwide, 450 of which are located in UK and the remaining 150 outlets operating in 30 countries around the globe, with sales amounting to U.S.$ 14.6 billion and a market value of U.S.$ 11.6 billion and profits posted at U.S.$ 1.1 billion and assets totalling to U.S.$ 8.1 billion ( 2005).  is the current Chairman while  is the Director of Human Resources for the organization and is mainly responsible for personnel management. Meanwhile, the executive board of directors compose of the Chief Executive (), Group Finance Director () and the Executive Director for marketing, e-commerce, store design and development (). The non-executive team, on the other hand, includes the Chairman (), Senior Independent Director (), Non-executive Directors (, ,  and ) and Group Secretary and Head of Corporate Governance (). The various directors of the British retailer include Director of Womenswear & Girlswear (), Director of Menswear & Boyswear (), Director of Lingerie (), Director of General Merchandise Planning (), Director of Food (), Director of Home and Beauty (), Director of Retail (), Director of Human Resources (), Director of Property ( ), Director, International and UK Outlets (), Director, IT (), Director of GM Supply Chain and Logistics (), Director of Sourcing (), Director of Far East Procurement () and Director of Communications ( ).

Main Organisational Challenges in Managing Global Supply Chain

            The acquirement of customer loyalty is a corporate challenge that every organisation today is facing. As this increasingly competitive and crowded marketplace expand, the profitability that customers will provide works towards the advantage of the host organisation. Meanwhile, the varying business conditions allowed customers to change too. To address the changing demands and behaviours of consumers, organisational administration had shifted their attention on their customers for the purposes of being successful in business. The need to entirely reformulate their predictable business outlook and purposes from process-focused to customer-centred is s significant leap towards service efficiency and competitive edge. With the advent of technological innovations, logistical decisions about delivery operations, stockholding, warehousing and economies of scale get more complex solutions in today’s business environment. The following are considered as main organisational challenges in managing the global supply chain.

            Product Innovations and Development. To sequentially sustain the growing market of the business, the efforts exerted in searching for potential opportunities and creation of new products for the target market is valuable. Generally, before a profit-oriented company start to operate, there should be product/s that is being offered. The various changes in the lifestyle and preferences of the consumers prompted every company worldwide to improve and to innovate their traditional product offerings. The term innovation means the development of something new from its beginning to its completion and from its initial idea until it becomes a viable business ( 1992). Innovation plays a great role in creation and development of new products of M&S. This is evident as shown in the launching new products and expanding the traditional product line. However, it must be considered that proper culture throughout the business setting is maintained as it will support the product and business development processes ( 1995;  1995). Thus, innovation and development in the product line must be a product of knowledge and culture ( 1993) within the immediate jurisdiction of the company’s operations. With M&S, the management should exhaust R&D programmes and consumer feedback system in order to identify the existing culture of the target market.

Superior Customer Service Satisfaction. Marketing experts state that in achieving business success, all you need is a customer (. 1998). Theories and concepts on how to manage are no longer necessary. Solving all problems is not also a guarantee to be efficient. All you need is to find out what you do right for the customers and you’ve already got and do more of it. Truly, the customers play as the key players in the success of a business. That is why customers’ satisfaction and welfare must be the primary goals of the management regardless of some circumstances taken at hand. In M&S, customers are always prioritized. Their satisfaction after their purchase of products is ensured by the company’s management.

Meanwhile, customer satisfaction is the consumer’s positive yet subjective assessment of the effects and experiences connected with using or consuming a specific product/service. The satisfaction of the customers is inarguably one of the two central concepts that are rooted in the marketing theory and tradition ( and  1996).  (1996) stated that satisfaction occurs to customers when the product/service met or exceeded their predetermined expectations. Furthermore, it is also considered that customer’s satisfaction is the measurement whether or not the quality of the product is neither high nor low (, . 1998). As the customers demand for higher standards, any shortcomings committed on their corporate position will jeopardise the life of their respective business. Hence, it is really important for companies to not only maintain and protect these intangible assets. It is also a must that they increase these assets for future benefits ( 2003). According to the study of  (1998), relationship with customers should not be regarded as a single transaction, rather, a long-term. Customer satisfaction and its related aspects, according to (1996) and  and  (2000) are essential building block for important consumer-related situations such as customer maintenance and constancy. Also, customer satisfaction undoubtedly facilitates the attainment of economic goals namely productivity, market share, return on investment, and other corporate target. The M&S management is highly concerned with their customers’ welfare and satisfaction and this is the underlying principle on being the leader in their area of industry.

Effective Implementation of Marketing Mix. Marketing mix, according to  and  (1990, ), is the standardised set of fitting marketing variables that every business and any other profit-motivated industry implements, in order to come up with a desirable outcome or answer on the target market they choose to penetrate. The marketing mix is composed of product, price, place, and promotion, or popularly known as 4Ps. M&S and its management perfected the application of the marketing mix. It is notable to restate that with the constant research and development in their product, pricing, placement and distribution, as well as promotion, their products remain as the leader in the UK retailing market. In their product, high quality is maintained. The fact that their products exceed the customers’ requirement, the price is also fair and reasonable. In terms of distribution, their strategic placement of the products contributes to the increase numbers of production and sales. Their products are highly prominent due to the different marketing communication tools used in promoting to the target market. M&S’s continuous integration of all the elements of the marketing mix and the appropriate marketing and management of the internal organization also serves as a powerful weapon in combating the rapid and stiff competition in the global marketplace.

            Competition. Adverse competition in every business environment is the most if not the first problem encountered. Companies have always taken a competitive product and dismantled it to examine each part to compare with their own. If a part made by a competitor has some advantage, then the advantage is copied or adapted. Benchmarking extends this concept to every business process. Competitive benchmarking is comparing performance between competitors, whereas process benchmarking is comparing performance of a business or production process, not necessarily among competitors ( 1994). If another company has a better operation or process, then a benchmarking company either copies or adapts it to its own needs.

            Benchmarking includes the tasks of comparing and assessing the capabilities of any similar business that operates in a given line of industry. It allows business leaders to accumulate significant facts and other useful and related information that will work to their own benefit particularly in the operations of the business. Information may come from global sources and these are utilised in the improvement of business productivity and overall organisational performance ( 1994). For example, M&S has complemented its rapid response to customer orders with rapid replenishment of small quantities of components from suppliers. Being in retailing for over a hundred years, one of M&S’s competitive advantages over their counterparts in the business is the reputation that they have established with their customers, employees and suppliers. M&S customers have long associated the business with optimum dependability and high value for money; the internal architecture of the company was focused around stable employment relations, well-built and supported organizational routines, as well as a collective idea that there was an M&S own way of doing things, which the employees benefit from. The suppliers’ relationship with the firm or the external planning of M&S was built around a harmonious relationship with various international suppliers. Complete influence on product requirement and design was present and maintained as an essential component of relationships that is sustained over the period of several years ( 1999). They also have strong environmental and community responsibilities, (as cited in  and  1994) part of their corporate responsibility. As stated by  (1985), ‘Marks and Spencer have pioneered and excelled themselves in a whole range of 'modern' management methods, notably strategic marketing, consumer research, product innovation and development, personnel management, staff training and management development, quality assurance and technological-oriented purchasing’ (). Overall, the strong and identifiable corporate culture of M&S that operates to get the best out of relatively ordinary employees have continued to produce exceptional corporate results over many years and through many changes in the economic environment ( 1995). Their financial performances from the previous years are shown below:

Marks & Spencer Financial Performance

 

Year ended	Turnover (£ M)	Profit before tax (£ M)	Net profit (£ M)	Basic eps (p)
1 April 2006	7,797.70	745.7	520.6	31.4
2 April 2005	7,490.50	505.1	355	29.1
3 April 2004	8,301.50	781.6	552.3	24.2
29 March 2003	8,019.10	677.5	480.5	20.7
30 March 2002	8,135.40	335.9	153	5.4
31 March 2001	8,075.70	145.5	2.8	0
1 April 2000	8,195.50	417.5	258.7	9
31 March 1999	8,224.00	546.1	372.1	13
31 March 1998	8,243.30	1,155.00	815.9	28.6
31 March 1997	7,841.90	1,102.10	746.6	26.7
31March 1996	7,233.70	965.8	652.6	455.8

Source:

Although there have been downfalls for the hardy retailing perennial over the years largely due to economic crises, they have managed to surmount all the stumbling blocks through an resilience that their competitors view as unnerving. With  taking over the M&S helm, he is unveiling sales figures for the quarter to 1 April of more than double analysts' expectations, predicting full-year profits ahead of City projections and paying a bonus to shop floor staff, on top of an incentive already announced, in less than two years when he first took charge ( 2006). Apparently, the summary of financial performance of the company for 2005 and 2006 are also illustrated:

Source:

 

From the figures, there are distinctive differences to the 2006 productivity and performance of the company in contrast to the 2005 performance. This result was verified by ANOVA analysis presented below:

The significance level of less than 0.05 indicates that at least one of the regions varies from the others. It means to say that the performance of M&S from year 2005 with respect to financial variables is statically different to year 2006 business performance.

Consumer Preference/Behaviour and Culture. The diversity of consumer preference/behaviour is among the greatest barrier in global supply chain. Researches on sensation and perception, attention, categorization, inference making, information search, memory, attitude and behaviour, attitude formation and formation, conditioning and satisfaction have been undertaken to understand consumer behaviour (. 1998). This decision process in global marketing is affected by the information as well as the process in which consumers process such obtainable facts. It is also influenced by the consumer’s preconceived viewpoint, feelings, purposes, as well as many other individual characteristics and consequences. Every business venture must take in consideration the market segmentation of the product being offered ( 1994).  and  (1995) state that one of the governing areas of consumer theory lays on the idea that a consumer is a `chooser'. They subjectively or objectively judge a certain product or service and will just make a decision after some series of self-scrutiny and decision-making. The people who will patronize the product/service being offered should be the main concern of the management since they are the targeted market. Along with the importance of product excellence, customer satisfaction and loyalty will follow.

            The impact of culture on a mundane operational function is important more so, in a global business. Culture, along with personal preferences of consumers is a great factor to consider. For example, Mc Donald in India is not preferable as to compare with KFC. Cultural considerations must be viewed by the management in order to yield market control and competitive advantage. For M&S, the continuous commitment to serve the needs of the consumers is the top priority.

Technology. Today, various technologies are utilised and serve competitive advantage to the organisation. Rethinking and reformulating the organization’s use of innovative technologies entail the consideration of several factors such as various processes, type of technology, the environment as well as the success factors of people ( and  2000).

In the traditional supply chain management used by businesses that import materials for production, a lot of people, time and money are invested upon to guarantee that the demands of the manufacturers will be handled in the specified date and time required. According to   (2001), supply chain management is considered as another determinant of organizational success and among the most important premeditated aspects of any commercial venture where decisions about coordinating of production of goods and services, store inventory, list of suppliers, and cost-effective and timely distribution are made. Supply chain management functions in order to design and manage the processes, assets and flows of material and information to answer the needs and demands of the customers and clients ( 2002;  and  1995). Before being able to place an order of shipment of raw materials, several transactions are consulted between the supplier and the manufacturer that eats up their valued time. The supply flow normally includes the intention of order, quotation, confirmation, delivery, payment and handling of receipts as great amount of time is consumed in the mere planning of the purchase orders of a manufacturing company (, . 2001; , . 1996). And since most of the time the transactions involve not only a single supplier, especially in the case of huge international producers, manufacturers deal with sub-suppliers with several forwarders from which a number of consolidations are exchanged. The workload and time that the inventory managers handle defines the proceeding business processes that will follow that predicts and maintains the success and profit of the whole business organization. Technology improvement is linked with the environmental-friendliness of the brand. Innovations are also designed in the manufacturing, distribution and research mobile. The improved integration combines the expertise of local associates into global spectrum that will hasten improvement of technology. 

 

 

 

Conclusion

            In this regard, Supply Chain Management (SCM) has become a key strategic initiative for companies, like M&S, particularly in improving service and reducing costs in order to remain competitive in today’s global economy (. 1998). SCM is business strategy focusing on the quick response to ever-changing market needs and shortened purchasing lead time, also adding value to increasingly demanding customers at the least cost and time (. 2002). Today, we cannot rely on a single party to fulfil the sophisticated needs of customers; we need a total commitment and full collaboration, integration and synchronization among all business partners ( 1999).

            Marks & Spencer, as a profit-oriented organisation is dedicated to providing products in ways that help protect the environment, their employees and the people who use them. The competitive advantages, the external and internal environment in which they operate show evidence that the firm is striving to maintain their dedication. In building and sustaining supplier relationships, M&S and its management can easily refer to the existing culture of supply chain management being utilized by their company throughout the long years of operations. Integration and acquisition are potential methods to retain good supplier relationship. Also, increase awareness to the conditions of affiliates and subsidiaries will somewhat determine the potency of the company. With this, training and retention are deemed crucial to international success of subsidiaries (,  and  2003, ). Granted that there are critics to the company, as there is always the presence of groups who are not very satisfied with the business’ performance, available figures and statements from business experts give evidence to M&S’s continuing commitment in making sure that they are will be the better if not best and works above the standards of its major competitors. Every managerial decisions made will work towards the company’s stated vision. M&S’s distinctive competence in terms of technical expertise, applications, and managerial aptitude are vital foundations of heterogeneity that will eventually become an element of sustainable competitive advantage. According to  (1995), “corporate success is based on the distinctive capabilities of the firm - those things, often the product of its particular history, which competitors cannot reproduce even after others realize the benefits these capabilities bring to the company that enjoys them” () Therefore, with the effective implementation of the mentioned concepts, competitive advantage in an organisation is not beyond reach.

           

References

Lean Manufacturing vs. Outsourcing

Data Analysis and Interpretation

This part of the study discussed the findings based on the collated information on the survey and interview conducted by the researcher. The primary objective of this study is directed towards the analysis on the effectiveness of Lean Manufacturing and Outsourcing among International Business Organisations in the electronics industry. The study intends to investigate the effects of lean manufacturing and outsourcing to international electronic business industry. For this study, primary research and secondary research was used. Primary research was conducted using anonymous questionnaires that were sent to selected individuals in different organisations. The researcher also be conducting focus group interview with managers and administrators. The questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data and the interviews were used to provide qualitative insights into the data collected. This study was divided into several parts. The first part shall provide a general description of the respondents. Particularly, it conversed to the respondents’ age, gender, civil status, educational attainment and occupation. The second part discussed the perception of employees pertaining to the status of lean manufacturing and outsourcing.  The third part discusses the perception of the interviewed respondents regarding lean manufacturing and outsourcing. And lastly the final part of the study discussed the analysis of the collated data that includes the discussion of problems and solution and statistical analysis. The researcher place figures for greater clarity on the discussions.

Part I. Profile of Respondents

This part of the chapter shall be discussing the general profile of the respondents. The first to be taken into consideration is the age of the respondents. The responses are summarised in the figure below. The exhibit shows that a major part of the respondents are rather mature (31 above), consisting of 65%. This might be reflected by the fact that the predominant positions of the respondents are in the managerial level, which requires a considerable amount of working experience. This is further asserted by the 37% who were in their early thirties and the 35% in their late twenties.

Exhibit 1. Age of Respondents

 

 

The next to be taken into consideration is the gender of the respondents. Apparently, a major part of the respondents constitute the male gender. This also states that majority of the respondents related to electronic industry adheres to more masculine perspectives. Nevertheless, a 47% of the respondents are female. On the other hand, with the seemingly patriarchal culture in organisation, it could be posited that females were not that good in the position.

 

Exhibit 2. Gender of Respondents

 

Exhibit 3. Civil Status of Respondents

Exhibit 3. The above illustration shows the civil status of the respondents. 33% of the total respondents, which is the dominated response is single. There are only 43% who are married from the overall respondents. As the figure was interpreted, there is a little percentage of respondents who are separated or widow. Likewise, the respondents were asked for their civil status and the report shows 33% of them are single and 43% are married.  This is due to the large number of young adult in the sample as compared to those who are adult.

 

Exhibit 4. Educational Attainment of Respondents

 

Exhibit 4. Likewise, the respondents were asked for their educational attainment and the report shows 53 % of them are college level. The survey indicates that most of the respondents are college level that is engage to the study. The diversity of the population is further asserted when the respondents were asked regarding their professional history. This data illustrate the maturity of the respondents particularly in terms of experience. On the other hand, the apparent youthfulness of the respondents, provided by their age and their lack of professional experience could not be considered as deterrence to their responses considering that the researcher has made sure the respondents have been connected with the business industry for at least a month. Moreover, there is a noticeable distinction of the respective positions of the younger generations in their respective perceptions towards the impact of lean manufacturing and outsourcing to international electronic business industry.

 

Exhibit 5. Occupation of the Respondents

Occupation of the Respondents	%
Business Managers	16
Supervisors	20
Business Executive	25
Staff	33
Admin-assistant	5
Student	1

           

 

Exhibit 5. The above table shows the different occupation of the respondents. From the surveyed individuals, the researcher gathers 6 different positions of the respondents that are illustrated on the above table. The most dominated occupation according to the survey is the staff that is 33% of the total respondents. Followed by business executives that is only 25% of the surveyed individuals. The analysis shows the fair distribution of occupation. The table also indicates that most of the respondents were in the company because of their own business transaction. However, there were 1% respondents who were students.  Meaning to say, most of the surveyed individuals are all knowledgeable about outsourcing. Some respondents are very much interested about lean manufacturing and outsourcing because they wanted to determine the possible impact of variables with respect to their business interests.

Part II.  Perception of the Respondents

            This part of the study illustrates the perception of surveyed respondents.  As discussed in the previous chapters, a total of 150 respondents were surveyed. Their perception towards lean manufacturing and outsourcing were sought.

 

Exhibit 6. Survey Question Results

Statements	5	4	3	2	1	Weighted Mean	Interpretation
Lean practices are widely used in the electronics industry.	65	42	31	7	5	4.01	Agree
Outsourcing practices are widely used in the electronics industry.	44	64	28	12	2	3.93	Agree
Your company is satisfied with the current Lean tools implemented.	56	54	23	11	6	3.91	Agree
Your company is satisfied with the current outsourcing tools implemented.	48	59	31	12	0	3.95	Agree
The Lean tools of the company are advantageous to the operations of the system of the organisation.	68	36	36	10	0	4.08	Agree
The outsourcing tools of the company are advantageous to the operations of the system of the organisation.	59	36	22	18	15	3.61	Agree
The Lean tools of the company present disadvantages to the operations of the system of the organisation.	65	35	40	4	6	3.95	Agree
The outsourcing tools of the company present disadvantages to the operations of the system of the organisation.	54	39	31	16	10	3.67	Agree
The advantages of using Lean tools and strategies are more significant compared to its subsequent drawbacks.	58	59	32	1	0	4.16	Agree
The advantages of outsourcing tools and strategies are more significant compared to its subsequent drawbacks.	58	54	25	12	1	4.03	Agree
The disadvantages of using Lean strategies are more significant compared to its advantages.	1	6	18	56	69	1.30	Strongly Disagree
The disadvantages of using outsourcing strategies are more significant compared to its advantages.	5	5	32	52	56	1.63	Disagree

 

The perception regarding lean manufacturing and outsourcing and its impact on international marketing considering that the subjects are from different electronic industry were analysed and discussed.

 

            The previous table shows the result of the survey statements of the respondents in regard to their perceptions. The columns five (5), four (4), three (3), two (2), and one (1) signify the number of respondents who answered on a particular ranking score.  In statement number one, sixty-five respondents answered five, forty-two for four, thirty-one for three, seven for two, and five for one. The weighted mean column shows the mean answer of that particular question that is 4.01 and interpreted it as ‘agree’. The Table above shows that most of the respondents agreed on the given survey statements. All the statements from the survey were clear to the respondents. According to the respondents, lean practices are widely used in the electronics industry. There are several factors that affect the development of a certain business.  In electronic industry, it is very important to determine if the tool used is effective.  Based on the surveyed respondents, their current was satisfied with the current Lean tools implemented. In addition, the company is also satisfied their outsourcing tools. In fact, majority of the respondents agreed that the lean tools of the company are advantageous to the operations of the system of the organisation. Similar to the previous results in lean manufacturing, the outsourcing tools of the company were also advantageous as perceived by the selected respondents.

 

Although most of the surveyed individual agreed that lean and outsourcing tools shows several advantages, still majority of them agreed that these tools (i.e. lean manufacturing and outsourcing) has some disadvantages. Basically, there are also hitches and situations where these tools are not always the best approach to use. Actually, most respondents agreed that lean manufacturing is more difficult to implement when there are significant demand variations, major changes in the product mix or complex global supply chains.  On the other hand, outsourcing in electronic industry has also weaknesses but most of them agreed that, the advantages of using lean and outsourcing tools and strategies are more significant compared to its subsequent drawbacks as shown in the previous table.

 

Part III. Interview Results

            This part of the study discusses the perception of the interviewed respondents regarding lean manufacturing and outsourcing practices.

 

Section A: Lean Manufacturing and Outsourcing Practices

With regards to the response of the interviewed respondents, they mostly said that the success of an industry largely depends on its performance based on its human resources and skills, as well as the management and organisation approaches decided by the leaders in order for the company to continue its smooth function and accessibility to their clients and customers. At the same time, there is a need for each department within the organisation to operate efficiently and for each system within these departments to be carried out professionally and competently in order for the industry to be found as reliable and trustworthy in the eyes of their clients. Thus, lean manufacturing and Outsourcing tools should be considered since these tools directly affect the relationship of Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) and Electronic Manufacturing Service (EMS) providers in the Electronic Industry.

 

It is said the electronic business industries has changed the way contemporary businesses are being operated.  With these lean manufacturing and outsourcing tools, many organisations especially those in the business field had been given the chance to evaluate their performance.  In its application many industries had survive in the stiff competition within the marketplace.  In addition, the application of lean manufacturing and outsourcing tools had given many industries the chance to implement a more strategic decision making due to the information that they have gathered.  However, the management of these industries must always take into consideration the some ethical issues that can be faced.  In this manner, the management must know how to handle such issues and provide ways in order to make their business more appealing to their target market.  In general, it is important that the industry must be able to utilise this electronic business in accordance with their existing corporate culture so as to avoid further conflicts that may result in the industry’s downfall. Actually, building up effective information channel and create the basic "trust" are the key for handling the obstacles. From the interviewed subjects, all of them stated that their respective companies practice both lean manufacturing and outsourcing operations strategy because it offers excellent business process.

 

Section B: Obstacles and Problems in Utilising Lean Manufacturing and Outsourcing

In every organisation, lean manufacturing and outsourcing or any other method used to stimulate development and growth has still significant drawbacks. From the interviewed subjects related to electronic industry believes that business strategy is very important for maintaining the competitiveness in today's fast moving market in the electronics industry. Therefore, the linkage and the lean manufacturing and outsourcing are very important. Company needs to think about how to build up a good relationship with the buyer and supplier and pay special attention on the data integration.

 

By using lean manufacturing and outsourcing practices, some of them argued that they can share the real time data with the supplier (EMS), they can use more accurate data to prepare their production and material requirement plan so as to have better inventory management. It is a kind of collaboration and strategic alliances model and company can not implement is smoothly without intimate relationship with the business partners.

 

Apparently, the world of lean manufacturing and outsourcing remains a constant source of confusion of high promise and gut-wrenching disappointment.  According to the respondents, improving logistics operations will be hard, and there are plenty of opportunities for misfires along the way, but respondents are hoping that corporate goals will forever elude.  They also believes that it take time, talent, energy, focus, money and guts to reach those goals--but that's exactly what it took for the world's best-run companies to make it to the top. It's not easy, but it's worth it.  Despite the culture problem that respondents elaborate they still believe that they should focus a large amount of attention on whether one’s supply chain is being managed to optimum benefit.  Thus, there is a need to enhance the relationship of OEM and EMS in accordance to outsourcing practices.

 

As companies expanded and outsourced more of their operations to third-party manufacturers and service providers, the need for visibility across the extended supply chain grew geometrically. But according to respondents are calling for a reduce in inventory and noting that supply chain management tools revealed a discrepancy between forecasts and historical data, according to them if they reduce their pipe line they can also reduce their liability in the management, they also noted that liability reduction is significant, in meaning there are literary millions of dollars of mitigated liability in the market. 

           

Essentially, lean manufacturing is recognition of the direct link between planning and control of the manufacturing process and corporate competitiveness. It is seen by a growing number of business managers as the least explored and most promising avenue to competitive advantage available to companies in today's business climate. It starts from the premise that such traditional areas for developing competitive strategies as marketing, finance, production, and design are yielding progressively declining results in terms of winning competitive advantage. In the other direction it holds that supply has been relatively unexploited as a competitive resource.  According to respondents, what’s important in electronic industry today is collaboration and proactive event management, ability to relay information internally between groups and externally with partners in business.  Even though some companies achieve impressive bottom-line results, such as a 50% inventory reduction with a 40% increase in on-time deliveries, there are reports of lean manufacturing initiatives that are blamed for profit shortfalls. According to some respondents, companies are becoming aware that lean manufacturing and outsourcing is complex and involves a new generation of technology, which does not solve existing barriers to successful implementation. Some of these barriers include organisational behavior, weak leadership, return on investment that is hard to measure, scope creep, integration of legacy systems, integration with small businesses, and poor data quality. In meaning, respondents are aware that companies have become cautious about supply chain investments. Instead of projects with large, long-term development cycles, companies are developing strategies that will result in lean manufacturing processes that are implemented as incremental, short-term, high value solutions while minimising risk.

 

On the other hand, the important considerations made by most companies to ensure the effective and efficient lean manufacturing and outsourcing practices are the following:

a.)  Effective performance measurements,

b.)  Better supplier relationship management,

c.)   The capability of information system technology between supplier and buyer.

Actually, the advantages and benefits of lean manufacturing practices that affect the outsourcing practices among electronic companies is that companies can gain long-run competitive advantage by integrating, synchronising and collaborating the missing links through the business model of lean manufacturing practices. By doing this, electronic business can build up such intimate relationship so as work together, hand in hand to achieve the common objectives.

 

Section C: Management Practices to Overcome the Obstacles and Problems in the Production

            From the interviewed respondents, there are several ways and management practices that their respective companies do in order to attain success in production. Basically, product or service management in electronic company includes a wide range of management activities, ranging from the time that there's a new idea for a product to eventually providing ongoing support to customers who have purchased the new product. Every organisation conducts product management, whether it is done intentionally or unintentionally. Businesses can generate revenue from selling more of the current products to more of the current customers, more of the current products to new customers, new products to current customers, or new products to new customers. In other words, businesses can generate revenue through customer maximisation, customer development, product development, or diversification.

 

According to some interviewed managers, in order to boost up the production process and enhance the production management style, the company uses several management analyses to overcome the obstacles in business. According to them, production process is not only the factor in business success or failure, the company should also be aware to other variables. How does a company succeed in today’s business world? For all types of firms, large and small, manufacturing and service or even to electronic industry, the answer given today might very well be different than that given just a few years ago. These managers were also saying that the area of operations management is receiving more attention as a way to compete in the world arena, where recently such areas as marketing and finance were considered more important. Similarly, the types of managers who rise to the top positions of a company seem to run in cycles. When those managers from the ranks of marketing, for example, reach the top, they naturally give that area a greater weight in decision-making. Conversely, if a company feels that marketing is crucial to its success, this belief would tend to produce top managers from that field. Some of the areas traditionally emphasised in successfully competing would include: product innovation and entrepreneurship; marketing, advertising, and distribution; finance; and price.

The ‘‘better mousetrap’’ approach is a tried and true way to capture a market. Fad items would be included here, such as hula hoops and Rubik’s Cubes. However, in most stable industries it is also important to continue innovating. Computer companies are continually working to make faster, smaller products and to find new applications for their products. Even food producers continually strive for an edge through more convenient products. Finally, of course, there are those companies that take a leap by introducing entirely new products, such as copy machines, videocassette recorders, fax machines, and the whole array of products now taken for granted that didn’t exist a generation ago. It is apparent that the strategic weapon of innovation will continue to be a powerful one in worldwide competition. In electronic industry, innovation is also important in making successful business operations.

 

Aside from this, marketing is also an essential part of converting an innovative idea into a profitable product for a company. Also, in those industries where innovation comes more slowly, marketing has been necessary to differentiate one’s product from those of competitors. Indeed, to some extent it has been accepted that marketing can make up for deficiencies in other aspects of a company, resulting in continuing suboptimal results in these other areas.

 

Marketing can also be used as a strategic weapon in several ways. Marketing research can help to discover existing demands and to develop market segments that can then be pinpointed. Advertising can be used to differentiate products, to promote awareness of new products, and to provide information on the benefits of products. It can sell politicians as well as products and services. The distribution system can enhance the marketing effort by making it easy for customers to find and to purchase products and services. The location of retail outlets and the use of mail order are examples of distribution strategies for products. Mobile car washes and veterinarians are similar examples in service industries.

 

By providing an infusion of money for capital and for operating expenses, the finance area is also a strategical weapon. For example, a company may decide that it can enjoy certain economies by expansion. A company can ensure reliable supplies through vertical integration. Horizontal integration or simply building new facilities can provide for increased volume. Even without expansion a company can compete by purchasing more sophisticated or more efficient equipment. In any of these endeavours there are many financing avenues that must be explored.

 

Other things being equal, price is still probably the main competitive weapon available. In order to compete through price, a company must either keep its costs lower than its competitors or reduce its profit margin and make it up through high volume. The costs of providing a product or service are materials, labour, and overhead. Traditionally, companies have focused on improving their methods of producing a product or service, through automation, for example, and on reducing their labour costs, through such strategies as motivation, more efficient procedures, or finding a source of less expensive labour. Automobile plants are good examples of the use of improved methods to contain costs, while the clothing and electronics industries are examples of those that locate their plants in areas where wages are low. As opposed to the previously mentioned strategic weapons, these cost-cutting strategies do fall under the province of operations management. Along with the other strategies, they will continue to be important means of competing.

 

According to the interviewed subjects, in order to meet the competitive advantage that has been set to take full accountability of the mishaps that have been occurring. This means that there should be no room for bickering and pointing fingers as to should be responsible for the shortcomings that resulted to the problems they are facing.  Only then can they go about on picking up where the left and attempt to finish everything themselves. Priorities must be set. For example, if the use of recent technology through internet media is not responding to the calls of the company as the internal people can do the job, then they must resort to foregoing within technology innovation to meet the demands of competition and immediately begin working on lay-outing themselves. After which, they would have to sacrifice more capital to the project for the purchase of the upgrades needed to set up for necessary changes at hand and that there must be continuous activities done in order to convince the writers and the management that their interests will be for the good of the company and maintain growth and stability.

 

Section D: Significance and Benefits of Lean Manufacturing and Outsourcing Practices

            With regards to the production management executions, these managers stated that lean manufacturing and outsourcing practices are one of the contributing factors in business success. Basically, the interviewed subjects stated that they also adopts the lean manufacturing model, having a culture of democracy and civic responsibility, with high levels of education and skills, with highly coordinated labour relations, with the desire to maintain social cohesion, with job enrichment, with high levels of worker democracy and autonomy, and with union-management co-determination. The combination of these allowed their respective companies to establish, encourage and enhance teamwork, which is being used by the company in its competitive advantage.  

           

On the other hand, outsourcing is also important to electronic industry since it is not a new phenomenon--although the subject has hit the headlines only recently. Many companies particularly in electronic industry started creating jobs overseas to gain access to foreign markets. Basically, the interviewed individuals stated that they audit, consult, and repair where customers are located. To put it mildly, they do not tell the overseas customers to come here. Moreover, many foreign markets are growing quickly as numerous domestic ones have become saturated. More than half of the employees in American information technology companies are estimated to originate overseas. That is not unique. In various industries--ranging from banking to consumer products to .job placement to aerospace-leading firms report that their overseas revenues exceed their domestic sales.

           

Remember, too, that some businesses hired specialised workers overseas to adjust to immigration limits. When they could not get those workers here, they had to send the work to them. While doing so, the companies learned how to use modern technology to shift the location of work economically. They become accustomed to taking advantage of lower costs, domestic and foreign. Telecommuting from employees' homes may have paved the way for some enterprises to extend the process to new suppliers, at home and abroad.

           

Most fundamentally, a great many companies are focusing their efforts on their core competence. They subcontract out most of their activities to domestic suppliers. Viewed from that perspective, overseas sourcing is a minor part of the trend to decentralise business operations. In addition, these companies have learned that, in many cases, the higher productivity of workers offsets the wage differentials and other costs of operating overseas.

           

Outsourcing can help a company operate in an increasingly competitive global marketplace. Lower costs are the key to maintaining a firm’s position in the modern global economy. Outsourcing can enable a business to provide 24/7 coverage, especially for customers who need around-the-clock support. On the other hand, it is impractical for a firm to adopt a unilateral policy against outsourcing work—especially when its foreign and domestic competitors are doing it. The specific decisions are made on hard-nosed business grounds--including balancing productivity and labour costs.

 

Section E: Production Practices and Tools for Success in the Electronics Industry

(For the last part, the surveyed and interviewed subjects were asked regarding the most appropriate production practices or tools for supporting the success of electronic industry. Basically, there are several production practices and tools to enhance business practices. Actually, there are disadvantages that company’s practices encounter in utilising such lean manufacturing and outsourcing practices and tools. Some of the interviewed subjects believe that Information sharing and system integration between OEM and EMS are very costly and it is also involved very complex work flow to create the information platform and design the information networks. Other stated that Software and Hardware investment are the major concerns of lean manufacturing disadvantages. Also, the system integration, data synchronisation process are complicated, it involved extra manpower to monitor the whole process from time to time.

 

According to these individuals, productivity is one of the major keys in gaining competitive advantage. Those who have high quality production with the most production are generally those with higher profit margins and lower costs. This allows them to hold a larger market share, proving that productivity improvement efforts are worth the changes in operation, culture, and philosophy that such implementations incur.

 

Through the successes of productivity and quality leaders, electronic companies find that enhancing productivity (and quality) is based not only on resources, processes, and techniques but also a correct set of corporate attitudes and goals that recognise and incorporate this goal into its strategies.

           

In international electronic business industry, coordination among different divisions is very important. Manufacturing, marketing, distribution, logistics, security and other variables in business should have proper coordination. This coordination in the movement of independent divisions that is observed in TQM programs characterises the orchestration of activities in Supply Chain Management. It focuses on (1) inventory control and planning, (2) advanced planning and scheduling, (3) warehousing and distribution strategies, (4) product design for mass customisation and product postponement, (5) procurement/scouring, and (6) fleet management. Here, mutual competitive interests motivate a manufacturer to coordinate activities of suppliers and purchasers to get products on the market effectively.

            In the case of surveyed managers, there are some suppliers and purchasers that deal with a manufacturer’s competitors, making the lines of cooperation and competition blurred in most cases. In this sense, Supply Chain Management uses the core competencies of these companies to reach a mutual well-being, a distinctly Japanese approach to business that has enabled them to compete with American businesses (single business vs. a strategic alliance that allows internal support to member companies). Through the alignment of these core competences, operations managers involve themselves with the upstream and downstream companies, using their inner workings in an integrated whole to develop a competitive advantage.

           

Innovation in the relationships between consumer-supplier is more notable in the JIT system in international electronic business industry. Using a system that is a variation of the “two-bin system”, they actuated a very real cost advantage over other beef manufacturers by arranging for their suppliers to deliver needed materials only shortly before they were actually. This eliminated bloated inventories, lowering their labour costs significantly compared to other global competitors of that time.

           

This “Kanban”, or more popularly known as the Just-in-time (JIT), inventory system made the buyers of the parts supremely dependent on their suppliers, integrating them into the international electronic business industry. in such a way that their traditional adversarial role was broken. The system was used by most of the leading electronic manufacturers in Japan where improvements in quality and productivity were noted in direct relation to the decrease in inventory size. In this system, suppliers need to be located that can meet the delivery cycles required, changing the way business was done between them.

           

The old approach of having multiple commodity sources has since shifted. While having multiple suppliers keeps competition on its toes between them and offers manufacturers lower prices in which to gain sales, this meant that buying would be in the form of solicited bids, often in annual basis. The exchange in suppliers and buyers were then laden with demands as the buyers drove to yield immediate cost savings by thriving on this competition between suppliers. The reduction of source base means that there must be a primary source for a commodity, building long-term supplier relationships based on trust.

 

Status of Lean Manufacturing and Outsourcing among International Business Organisations in Electronics Industry

From the given results of the interview and survey analysis, it seems that lean manufacturing and outsourcing among the said organisation play significant role to their development and success. Thus from this, the increased market competition identifies continuous adjustment and improvement in the production lines, outsourcing and supply chain management of companies.

 

Actually, both EMS and OEM among International Business Organisations were asked regarding the important aspect of lean manufacturing and outsourcing in the electronics industry. According to OEMs, lean manufacturing is a very important management tool and business strategy for the electronics industry since the industry is moving very fast, product life cycle is getting short and competition is very keen. In connection this, OEMs asserted that it is very difficult to face the competition if company do not have the suitable strategies to control the total cost as well as continuous improvement for the customer services level. In accordance to lean manufacturing practices of OEMs, they have different measurements to keep check the performance in different areas. However, according to them the most critical point is to use a right strategy and approach to integrate with upstream and downstream partners so as to create the synergy by using a collaboration business model.  In accordance to these issues, most interviewed EMS respondents believes that lean manufacturing is a consumer driven management practice, satisfying the needs of consumers.  In contrast to the response of OEM, EMS argued that the information flow within the supply chain is crucial to integrate diverse business functions and to co-ordinate activities across different organisations around the world. Today, most EMS can rely on a single party to fulfill the sophisticated needs of customers since they need a total commitment and full collaboration of all trading parties such as suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, etc.

 

Apparently, both OEM and EMS were asked regarding outsourcing practices. In this regard, outsourcing is not applicable to EMS but they believe that outsourcing strategy is one of key elements for driving the growth of electronics industry. Without the EMS support, OEM can not focus on his core competency and reduce the product development cycle time. Also, consumer can not enjoy such low cost product as EMS provider can enjoy the low cost production by using large production scale. For this part, OEM respondents asserted that most of them are using outsourcing strategy for both logistics (use 3PL) and manufacturing (use EMS) functions. In fact, outsourcing can support OEM business growth by using less investment as we can shared the risk with our suppliers (i.e. EMS). Also, OEM can focus on R&D, design and brand management rather than the details operations. It is good for most OEM to have better ROI and they can easily manage the inertial resources as well. Actually, interviewed OEMs understand that outsourcing strategy is vital for electronics industry, outsourcing is part of our lean manufacturing strategy and company needs focusing on the quick response to ever-changing market needs and shortened purchasing lead time, also adding value to increasingly demanding customers at the lowest cost and time, otherwise, they can remain competitive in today’s global economy.

 

Actually, there are some criteria set by both OEM and EMS to be able to provide efficient and effective lean manufacturing through outsourcing practices.  For OEM they have cost saving, reduced the total cycle time for product development, better resources management and better ROI.  On the other hand, most EMS considers time-to market, product development cycle time, and total cost saving.

 

Similarly, the selected respondents were also asked regarding their perception towards the outsourcing tools used in their respective companies.  From the responses of the selected individuals, there are several benefits of outsourcing such as: cost and flexibility; lessens the need of an organisation to maintain in-house capability for activities having a high degree of technical specialisation and saves on overheads by maintaining flexibility in responding to internal and external fluctuations; and as a tool to extend product range, to test the market for new products, to supply short demand products and to avoid having to produce small batches of products themselves which could disrupt long-run production schedules. However, contrary to its benefits, outsourcing also has a number of drawbacks that would make organisations think twice before implementing the strategy. The drawbacks of outsourcing include: some organisations experience problems due to the complexity of the many activities that organisations outsource; it can take up to two years before an organisation starts to achieve any financial benefits from outsourcing and in some cases the process may be cost neutral; the main problems companies in contracting out activities, like quality of service, communication with suppliers, redundancy costs, co-coordinating different suppliers, reduced flexibility, dependence on a few suppliers, and communication with a few suppliers; problems that threatened the viability of the activity due to lack of strategic integration and poor senior manager communication; loss of control; difficult to reverse decision; long-term contracts can lead to a lack of flexibility; requires management of organisation / outsourcee alliance; outsourcers can put themselves at risk from lack of responsiveness, poor service, etc.; subject to new costs if changes are required; difficult to quantify advantages; and possibility of being locked into older technology.  

 

            From the surveyed and interviewed personalities, the summary of the responses of the respondents in accordance to the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing and lean manufacturing are shown below.

 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Lean Manufacturing

 

Lean manufacturing Advantages:

     

According to the respondents Lean manufacturing

 

 

a)     reduce the inventory cost,

b)    provides better ROI,

c)     improve the customer services,

d)    reduce total logistic costs,

e)     provides flexible manufacturing,

f)     less inventory,  

g)    improve the cash flow   ,

h)     provides better product availability,

i)      lower warehouse operation cost, shared risk with suppliers         

j)      flexible production planning,     

k)     reduce total material and inventory costs,

l)      focus on core competencies,

m)   provides faster time-to market,

n)     less stock, and

o)    less manpower

 

 

Lean manufacturing Disadvantages:

            Here are the disadvantages of Lean manufacturing tools as perceived by the respondents.

a)     effective supply based management is requested,

b)    supplier shipment delay or quality issue will affect the production plan seriously

c)     high risk on manufacturing and product distribution as there is no buffer stock and it is only rely on supplier managed inventory          

d)    too rely on supplier,

e)     no safety stock for handling the uncertainness,

f)     not easy to manage the supplier performance,

g)    not easy to provide accurate forecast to supplier for planning the inventory level,

h)     higher investment on IT system and data exchange,

i)      inflexible for handling the unpredictable demand,

j)      need to use more effort on building the relationship with the suppliers,

k)     request effective data exchange platform,

l)      need a superior management on warehouse operation,   

m)   too depending on 3PL's support,

n)     no capability to support the rush order and meet customer's urgent requirements,

o)    not easy to roll out the EDI with the business partners, and        

p)    need to spend more resources on building an effective communication interface with supplier.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Outsourcing

 

Advantages of Outsourcing

 

a)     focus on company's core competencies,

b)    better Return On Investment (ROI),     

c)     better cost control,

d)    more focus on R&D,

e)     improved the performance of time-to-market,

f)     no need to do the investment on buying new machines for making new products,

g)    reduce total cost,

h)     better product quality,

i)      flexible manufacturing services,

j)      less risk on releasing the new product to the market,

k)     improve the services to the customer (Quick respond for sampling and mass production),

l)      better product quality and reliability,  and

m)   less investment but faster lead time.

 

 

Disadvantages of Outsourcing

a)     not easy to build up the trust with the supplier (EMS),

b)    cannot own the manufacturing know-how,

a)     relationship driven, need to spend more time on communication,

b)    effective information flow is requested so as to ensure the information can flow properly,           

c)     need to spend more time on relationship development, (b) Not easy to have better communication,

d)    complex information flow,

e)     high cost on building up a comprehensive information network between OEM and EMS,

f)     relationship-based,

g)    need to share the product and process know-how to EMS provider,

h)     effective data sharing process is needed,

i)      high data integration cost,

j)      product knowledge will be disclosed to the suppliers (EMS)        ,

k)     engineer needs to spend more time on communicate with the external suppliers, otherwise, the whole project maybe delay,

l)      need to spend more time on long term relationship development,

m)   need to spend more money on information sharing,

n)     efficient information system is always requested to link with the supplier,

o)    need to manage the relationship carefully,

p)    high risk on sharing the product design knowledge with the suppliers, and

q)    IT capability and reliability are requested.

 

 

Synthesis

A lot of factors have influenced the ever-increasing pressures that resulted to intense competition in the global electronic manufacturing industry. New trends in the business operations strategies, more interactive business relations among different market players as well as the customers’ increased involvement in maintaining the quality of products and services continue to demand efficient and productive measures among contract manufacturers and service providers. Manufacturing companies were able to answer and meet the specifications of their customer base by utilising the current technological advancements in the past decades. Innovations in computer features, networking strategies, and telecommunication products facilitated business organisations to invest on market researches, company development, and effective re-engineering measures to create quality products and provide efficient services.

 

As a result, lean manufacturing and outsourcing strategies have been widely accepted in order to reduce expenses, improve productivity, operations management, and delivery, and concentrate on upgrading the company’s technological expertise. As a result, the discussion how big business organisations which depend highly on efficient delivery and distribution procedures gain their success in the competitive market environment was carried out by examining the strategic implications of lean manufacturing and outsourcing and its benefits and costs as a more flexible and decentralised organisational business strategy. As a popular business strategy in the current global business environment, outsourcing and lean manufacturing was discussed in a holistic manner to justify the inevitable success it brings to business units.

 

With regards to the contribution of lean manufacturing and outsourcing to the development of international electronic industries, there are several measures used to determine the success of the said industry. Since there have been different methods to measure performance several companies question which method is the most effective to use. Considering that financial and non-financial approaches are two very different systems, applying one mechanism in place of the company’s existing performance and evaluation means will entail greater changes and adjustments. Moreover, some aspects in traditional systems are lacking in the non-financial systems and vice versa.

 

Performance measurement has long been used by the various firms to assess production practices of electronic companies. In general, lean manufacturing and outsourcing are being used to enhance business production. While these approaches have their own advantages and drawbacks, the goal of their application remains one and the same. Through the beneficial effects of performance, businesses are able to create successful strategies towards success.

 

Conclusion and Opportunities

This chapter intends to conclude the results of the study; the study also intends to give the implications of the said results. The study also intends to give recommendations based from the results of the data analysis. The focus of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of lean manufacturing and outsourcing to international businesses particularly to electronics industry. In general, lean manufacturing and outsourcing are one of the factors to be considered in business success. As illustrated in literature review chapter, there were eight critical success factors to consider and they are procurement, product and service management, total quality management, inventory management, logistics and transportation management, facilities management, software configuration management and distribution channels. However, the limitation of study focuses its concentration to lean manufacturing and outsourcing issues present in international business organisations.  In establishing a good business, one must be aware of the said factors and these will serve as guide in the proper handling and creation of a business. The general population for this study is composed of respondents from international business organisations whose company are doing electronic products. From this surveyed respondents, twelve (12) out of one hundred fifty (150) respondents were also interviewed. To determine the assessment of the respondents of international business sector in electronics industry, the researcher prepared a questionnaire and a set of guide questions for the interview that is asked to the intended respondents. The respondents graded each statement in the survey-questionnaire using a Likert scale with a five-response scale wherein respondents are given five response choices.

           

            Concurrently, the study employed both qualitative and quantitative research methods to ensure a flexible and iterative approach. During data gathering the choice and design of methods are constantly modified, based on ongoing analysis. This allows investigation of important new issues and questions as they arise, and allows the investigators to drop unproductive areas of research from the original research plan. The researcher also uses percentage analysis to evaluate the collated data.

 

 

 

Summary

The study showed that the primary determinants of businesses commerce in international business of electronic industry remain to be lean manufacturing and outsourcing. On the other hand, overall quality in terms of operations is definitely the most important factor to consider. Quality however is being considered more than the price of the service/product in any business. In assessing the overall quality of business, two factors are considered: the reliability and durability of business.

 

Aside from the said factors to be considered by international business, TQM, technology and customers was also regarded by the respondents to be of utmost importance as evidenced by the interviewed managers. The result implied that the respondents also consider the marketing and advertisement in taking into consideration the operational procedure of their respective companies.

 

Based on the gathered information, the respondents asserted that the operation management stability in most international business involved in electronic manufacturing is in good condition however there is always a room for improvement.  The qualitative interviews indicated that it is important for them to learn from multiple customers in order to enhance their performance. The interviews highlight the following two related points: The buyer is as an important source of valuable knowledge in terms of what they prefer, what they want in product or service, the price, the quality and the type of negotiation they want to take place.

 

Finally, with international businesses’ rapid economic growth in terms of business expansion, more technology-based consumer products are becoming available. This also applies in different businesses globally. The changing market structure of the transitional economy in countries makes it very difficult for consumers to choose products. This has also allowed them to be more critical on the quality and the price of the product they are buying especially in international businesses of electronic industry.

 

Part 1. Profile of the Respondents

The respondents were composed of the respondents at the different international business Industry of electronic companies. The apparent diversity of the maturity of the respondents reflects several implications in the study’s findings. Seventeen percent (17%) of the respondents were 25-31 years old, showing that most of them were already considered as young adult. Another seventeen percent (17%) of the respondents were between 32-38 years old. Twenty percent (20%) of the respondents were between 39-45 years old.  In addition, another twenty percent (20%) of the respondents are in 46-52 years old status.  Based on the results of the study, the number of the Male respondents (57%) is far to the female (43%). This result shows an unequal footing in terms of representation of gender regarding the perception of men in the performance of lean manufacturing and outsourcing among international business in electronic industry. The male respondents outnumber the female respondents by approximately 14%; this data provides a glimpse of the aggregate size of men in the workforce particularly of international business environment. In regards to the civil status of the respondents, majority of the surveyed respondents are single.

 

Part 2. Perception of the Respondents

            According to the majority of surveyed individuals, there are several but little problems arises when in comes to international business industry of electronic organisations. One of the problems they encounter are in terms of business security, quality performance of staff and other TQM issues. Issues regarding lean manufacturing and outsourcing tens to be in good condition as illustrated by their responses in survey and interview. From the description in literature chapter, Total Quality is a description of the culture, attitude and organisation of a company that strives to provide customers with products and services that satisfy their needs. This culture requires quality in all aspects of the operation of international electronic organisations, with the process being done right the first time and defects and wastes eliminated from operations. In general, Total Quality Management or TQM is a combination of quality and management tools according to the surveyed and interviewed participant aimed at increasing business and reducing losses due to wasteful practices, and a method by which management and employees can become involved in the continuous improvement of the production of goods and services.

 

            For these respondents, Total Quality Management or TQM is a management philosophy that may refer to any number of employee interventions and techniques used to improve quality, and may also be a basic business strategy to provide goods and services that completely satisfy the customers by utilising the employees’ talents while providing a positive financial return to the shareholders.

 

            TQM in international electronic companies should guide any organisational interventions intended to improve quality. The first principle according to these respondents is to focus on work processes, for the quality of products and services depends most of all on the processes by which they are designed and produced. It is not adequate to only provide clear direction about hoped-for-outcomes, rather, the management must train and coach employees to assess, analyse, and improve work processes. The second principle is analysis of variability, for uncontrolled variance in processes or outcomes is the primary cause of quality problems and must be analysed and controlled by those who perform an organisation’s front-line work. Only when the root causes of variability have been identified are employees in a position to take appropriate steps to improve work processes. In addition, the central problem of management is to understand better the meaning of variation, and to extract the information contained in variation. The third principle is management by fact, for the process of Total Quality Management calls for the use of systematically collected data at every point in a problem-solving cycle, beginning from determining high-priority problems, through analysing their causes, to selecting and testing solutions. This quality-improvement program is based on collecting data, using statistics, and testing solutions through experiment. Lastly, the fourth principle is learning and continuous improvement, for the long-term health of an enterprise depends on treating quality improvement as a lifetime quest. Opportunities to develop better methods for carrying out work always exist, and a commitment to continuous improvement measures that people will never stop learning about the work they do.

 

            With the guidance of the discussed principles, companies or business organisations that adopt and implement the concept of Total Quality Management will be in more advantaged than other companies, for TQM has several benefits. According to one of the interviewed respondents, through the application of total quality management in their company, the senior management empowered all levels of management, including self-management of the employees to manage quality system. These benefits are grouped into five key areas, namely, continuous improvement, multifunctional teams, reduction in variation, supplier integration, and education and training.

 

Applications and Implications

Every business is subject to factors that affect the firm’s function as a whole.  These factors are the ones attributed for the success or even the failure of a business. It is said that the management system and the strategy imposed by the organisation is attributed as the factors which carries certain companies to success or even its failure.  In the light of this, there are certain ways or techniques that can be considered in order to emerge and continue to be competitive within the market place. It is important that every individual in the business field should know how to manage or to handle situations in order for the business to achieve success. From the previous results and discussions, this part of the study illustrates the implication of quality management as part of lean manufacturing and outsourcing principles of international businesses in electronic industry.

 

            One of the issues that have been pointed out to international businesses in electronic industry is their inability to establish good management strategy that would further enhance the business’ position to the business industry.  Good management strategy will ensure international businesses in electronic industry growth if implemented properly. In this regard, the main target for total transformation for the company to achieve growth and competitiveness is its outsourcing procedure or human resource management. It is said that if the effective outsourcing or human resource management of most international businesses in electronic industry is efficient, then other members of the organisation will be inspired and motivated to work harder which may result in producing quality products and services. Hence, the problems that most international businesses in electronic industry should be in focus are on its TQM processes.

 

            To be able to implement Total Quality Management and attain success in operations management, lean manufacturing and outsourcing, the international businesses in electronic industry should follow the following outline.

 

            I.  Introduction

                        A. Marketing Research.

            First and foremost the company must know the current situation of the business. Hence, it is important that the company must be able to establish an internal marketing research to determine the factors to be changed and how Total Quality Management would be implemented.

 

B.   Information Dissemination

            The management of the company must be able to disseminate the information that the company will imposed some changes regarding TQM so that the employees will be aware in the situation.

 

C.   Identifying the Project Team Leader and the Project Team Members

         The project will not be able to meet its objective if the tasks are not allocated to the respective people who will implement the project. Task allocation is not simply a case of handing out the various tasks on final lists to the people available; it is far more delicate (and powerful) than that. In simple terms, consider what each member of your team is capable of and allocate sufficient complexity of tasks to match that (and to slightly stretch). The tasks allocated are not the ones on finals lists, they are adapted to better suit the needs of team's development; tasks are moulded to fit people, which is far more effective than the other way around.

 

                        Herein, the leader who is chosen to implement the project must be committed to the concept of Total Quality. This is to ensure that the plan will work out well for the benefit of the organisation as a whole.  In addition, the project team leaders and members must also be aware of the possible problems that they may encounter and that they must always have an alternative plan to anticipate such problems.

 

II. Identifying Total Quality Management Needs

A.   Effective outsourcing

Effective outsourcing is considered as one of the main assets for every organisation. The proper management of Human Resources is significant in determining the success of a certain organisation. Making awareness of management value and the ability to manage the human resources in an organisation-wide will have great impact on progress results. Consequently, it is said that the philosophy of effective outsourcing is based on the simple belief that human resources are the most important asset in achieving and sustained business success. This realisation became the driving force behind the creation of effective outsourcing resulting in organisations taking a strategic technique to the management of their people.

 

  The true worth of effective outsourcing is becoming more widely understood as effective outsourcing steadily interweaves all aspects of people management and development within the company.

 

 

This effective outsourcing plan is applicable to the implementation of the Total Quality Management among international businesses of electronic industry since it provides a long-term policy that would ensure equality among employees which in return would be able to motivate the employees to provide competitive performance for their benefits and the for sake of the whole company as well.

 

B.   Human Resource Staffing

Staffing today is taken a lot more seriously and given a lot more
thought than it used to be.  Gaining competent employees at all levels of the organisation is more than a matter of training.  It stems from changes in recruitment and selection philosophy.  Staffing the most competent employees for each and every organisation is continuous challenge for the effective outsourcing.  Faced with the problem of conducting Staffing effort to fill critical position in any level of organisation, the effective outsourcing must create an Employee Staffing Policy to identify the critical activities in the recruitment process and monitor its results.

 

In order to create Employee Staffing Policy, planning is an important element of most aspects of effective outsourcing.   Depending on the personnel function considered. Effective outsourcing often have very different ideas on how to go about the recruitment process and when it should be done.  Staffing new employees to fill existing vacancies is an important function within effective outsourcing.

 

These routine dimensions of the Staffing process are integrated into the daily routine of many HR departments and once a system is established, there appears to be little need for additional planning or analysis with regard to how the Staffing process should proceed. From time to time, however, it is necessary to recruit a person to fill a high level vacancy. This is to ensure that the management is giving the most deserving employees the chance to hold higher positions.  This must be done also in order to ensure quality management within the organisation which may result in creating quality products and quality service for the customer satisfaction.

 

III.   Specific Processes to Successfully Implement the Lean manufacturing Plan

After the planning phase is over (and agreed), it is a signal of the doing phase begins. Once the project is in motion, it acquires a direction and momentum which is totally independent of anything that was predicted. The key elements to the control of a project are the milestones and established means of communication. The milestones are a mechanism to monitor progress; for the team, they are short-term goals which are far more tangible than the distant completion of the entire project. This maintains the momentum and encourages effort for the team; it allows the team to judge their progress and to celebrate achievement throughout the project rather than just at its end.

 

The simplest way to construct milestones is to take the timing information from the work breakdown structure and sequence diagram. When it has been guesstimated how long each sub-task will take and have strung them together, it can be identified by when each of these tasks will actually be completed. In order to apply the TQM to lean manufacturing of international business especially to be used in the its competition to the business industry, the management of the electronics industry must be able to accept the whole concept of the improvement, which means that all the people within the electronics industry must agree that there is a need for a total transformation especially for the quality of the products and services that electronics industry will be offered.  Furthermore, the management should be willing to participate to all the improvement, value each and every ones opinion in order to achieve total quality management and provide a total quality operations and services to satisfy their customers.

 

Managers and experts disagree about how to effectively implement Total Quality Management to their organisations. Eventually, customer satisfaction has always been regarded as the driving force behind quality improvement; others suggest quality management is achieved by internal productivity or cost improvement programs. In other applications, Total Quality Management is regarded as a technique to introduce the context of participative type of management.  Thus, the management should be more straightforward to provide the potential role of applying the Total Quality Management as an overall strategy of the electronics industries.

 

In addition, since Total quality management is based on internal or self-control, which is embedded in every element of the work system (technology and people), the employees or the people behind the production and other employees that are responsible for the effective outsourcing purposes must be able to determine the problems beforehand, to anticipate its occurrences. In applying total quality management and the effective outsourcing plan, international business organisations must be able to combine it with the core strategy of the industries; this does not mean that international business organisations related to electronic industries must have total changes. It is important that in application of the Total Quality Management Plan to international business organisations must also consider that an appropriate strategy should be used in order to produce total quality products that would satisfy all clients and customers.

 

IV. Dangers in review

There are dangers avoiding this project reviews, it is either too frequent or too drastic. The lack of sustainability to the project can lead to plan revisions which shake the team's confidence in any particular version destroying the stability of the project designed. Decide objectively, and explain beforehand, when the review phases will occur and make this a scheduled milestone in itself.

 

Even though the situation may have changed since the last review, it is important to recognise the work which has been accomplished during the provisional. First, the organisation do not want to abandon the project since the team will be demotivated feeling that they have achieved nothing. Secondly, this work itself is part of the new situation which has been done, it should provide a foundation for the next step or at least the basis of a lesson well learnt. Existing achievements of team should always be building up.

 

                        V.  Time

            Time is sometimes one of the problems since there are companies that are demanding for unrealistic time. For this project, realistic schedule viewed by the team should be imposed.  Outside world are not allowed to deflect team form what knows to be practical. If the impose a deadline upon which is impossible, the team will clearly state this and give reasons.  For this instance, the project teams must determine the most appropriate time to start the implementation of the project; the sooner, the better.

 

            VI.   Planning for error

One of the most common errors in planning is that assuming there will be no errors in the implementation which in effect, the schedule is not based on the plan. On the other hand, recognising that errors will occur is the reason for implementing a monitoring strategy on the project. However, by cautiously considering errors in advance can make changes to the original plan to enhance its tolerance.

 

The team that would implement Total Quality Management Project must try to predict where the errors will occur by examining the activities' list. The risky areas might then be given a less strict time-scale - actually planning-in time for the mistakes. Another option is to apply a different strategy, or more resources, to such activities to minimise the disorder in the project.

 

Conclusion

As mentioned on the result of the previous chapter, international business organisations in the electronics industry are doing ways to assess the critical success factors of their business operations. In addition to this, most of them are giving enough consideration to TQM in lean manufacturing and outsourcing since these factors affects and contributes to their operational success. Most international business organisations in the electronics industry wanted to maintain the loyalty of the customers; they are willing to do anything for the benefit of the customers and for them to stay loyal to the company. International business organisations in the electronics industry believe that the customer should be their first priority; they also want the customers to remain loyal to the company. By focusing on the customer’s needs and wants international business organisations in the electronics industry is getting more loyalty from the consumers. As mentioned on the result chapter, international business organisations in the electronics industry are continuously changing their strategy for the success of operations management of their business.

 

The international business organisations in the electronics industry are doing these things to maintain its consumers and have more loyal consumers. Basically, the international business organisations in the electronics industry is offering the best service it can. They also updating the standards of services they offer to customers.  Based on the findings of this study, the researcher concludes the following:

 

1.        The respondents who took part in this study are already mature in age, responsible and reliable.  They are also aware of what’s happening in international business organisations in the electronics industry and are deeply concerned about the improvement of operations management in their respective companies.

 

2.        The respondents have given an overall rating of “Agree” to each of the criteria. Most of the respondents believe that operational management has something to do with his business strategies. This shows that they are satisfied with the current state of things in the international business organisations and the electronics industry.

 

3.        There are several factors affecting the rise and fall of some business establishments in international business organisations in the electronics industry. We also have to consider the political and security issues in these countries since these are one of the biggest factors to consider.

 

4.        Aside from lean manufacturing and outsourcing, the other factors that affect the success of international business organisations in the electronics industry are Procurement, Product and Service Management, Total Quality Management, Inventory Management, Logistics and Transportation Management, Facilities Management, Software Configuration Management, and Distribution Channels.

 

5.        From the analysis of results of related literature and data from the respondents, it is reliable to state that international business organisations in the electronics industry are in good condition considering the factors in operation (i.e. lean manufacturing and outsourcing).

 

6.        The study also reveals that all the variables in operation should be consider in attaining the great results in business progress. It is also important to have trainings of staff in international business organisations in the electronics industry.

 

Recommendations

            The general, long-term development of these businesses is one characterised by a series of evolutionary periods that at times can best be described as revolutionary in nature. In line with this observation, international business organisations in the electronics industry need to constantly be on the lookout for strategies which would help in maintaining their market leadership. Problems in the industry today appear from so many angles, at so many levels and in so many directions that their pursuit without a regular path will soon become lost in details. Different business model can help any organisation to determine the direction in which they are going to take through. Using this tool, international business organisations in the electronics industry, as well as other firms, is challenged to understand an industry’s profit potential and the strategy necessary to establish a defensible competitive position, given the industry’s structural characteristics. Overall, international business organisations in the electronics industry are highly attractive industry which contributes a large share of the total profits. With the intensity of rivalry kept in check by the business giants, high threat of industry entry, low supplier and buyer power, prospects for business holds much promise.

 

All things considered, there is still no substitute for good management in the strategic positioning and implementation process of international business organisations in the electronics industry. That means:

 

Ø  targeting markets that are large and growing and increasingly concentrated, where the firms has a shot at being one of the dominant players;

 

Ø  knitting together those markets that extract the maximum value from scale and scope linkages that may exist.

 

Ø  setting up change management teams to handle the change management aspect of the potential alliances.

 

Based on the foregoing summary of findings and conclusion, the researcher recommends the following:

 

1.     Update the facilities, equipment, and training strategies to their respective international business organisations in the electronics industry.  Moreover, there should be a strict implementation of the training programs pertaining to enhancement of operations management.

 

2.     Maintain open communication lines between the management, administration and employee.

 

3.     Review the program of the each of the company and update the content to increase the standard of the company.  Employee must also be given stricter training requirements to ensure that they understand their job well. 

 

4.     Industries open communication lines between employees and administrators especially in disseminating information and communication.  This is to ensure that the employees know what the administration is up to and vice-versa.

Decent Work in Australia: Employee Relations

Decent Work in Australia: Employee Relations

 

            For a number of years, the concept of decent work has been promoted by the International Labour Organization, and becomes important in terms of addressing a number of issues related to employment relations. Being the goal of many employees, decent work has been an important concept that encompasses not only what happens at the workplace and what employers do, but also covers broader issues in the society. With this, this paper discusses the concept of decent work and its components, the different views of the actors of employment relations regarding decent work, including the strategies that can be used to create decent work. From this, the argument of the paper will be developed, which leads to the conclusion of the paper.         

 

            The expression “decent work” can be understood by analyzing the word decent itself, as being “satisfactory, and of an acceptable standard” (2006). This just means that a decent work is characterized as being a work or job that is sufficient, both in quality and quantity (2006), and provides a good source of income and livelihood for employees and employers. In addition, it is also characterized by a productive work, protection of rights, adequate pay, social coverage, and tripartite approach and social dialogue (2006). Moreover, decent work has four dimensions (2002), from which the development and improvement of organizations and companies are based in order to implement strategies in relation to employee relations and other related issues such as unemployment and equality. The four dimensions are:

Work and Employment – in a decent work, the quantity and quality of work available includes having enough work and income, considering the working hours and intensity of work

Basic Rights at Work – this is expressed as including labor standards, freedom of association, right to a living wage, a safe work environment, freedom from child labor, forced labor and many other rights

Security – in a decent work, right to job security and social protection is an important aspect, especially when faced with adverse economic conditions

Representation and Dialogue – a decent work involves having the right to representation and employee ‘voice’ and workplace democracy, such as with trade unions.

            These dimensions are essential to take note of, for they become good basis for the improvement of employee relations that would contribute to a successful organization. In addition, decent work is the basic demand for all working individuals, as it represents the identification for decent jobs, homes, food, education, adequate income, social protection, respect for union rights, democratic participation and social dialogue, such that it contributes to the prevailing economic stability and order of a nation ( 2003). The success, along with the failure of the economy and labor market has profound effects on the living standards of individuals, and in the assessment of how work is evolving, it is essential to devote particular importance to understanding wages, hours of work and forms of employment, which determine employee relations and conditions (2006).

 

In relation to this are the different views of the actors of employment relations on decent work, namely, unions, employers and the state. For the union, decent work involves the expression of the voice of the workforce in representing workers and employees, to create the basis for both dynamic efficiency and ‘sword of justice’ (2003). The help of trade unions help concentrate the minds of managers and workers on developing and maintaining decent, viable and efficient employment and labor practices (2003). For employers, establishing a decent work involves their support and management through new technical assistance support service that provides consultancy and helps to build new networks that better link business and workforce development, and the monitoring and evaluation of performance measures of employees (2006). Lastly is the view of the state of Australia, which aims to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions providing freedom, equity, security and human dignity, including the growth of opportunities for wage development and self-employment. Thus, these goals tend to provide solutions in combating poverty and unemployment, increasing personal and national economic security, increasing efficiency, and improving equity and strengthening social integration (2005). The view of decent work by the state involves the change of focus in the Australian workplace relations systems, which has already moved away from a reliance on external intervention, and towards encouraging employers and employees to come up with agreements at the workplace (2007).

 

Strategies that can be used to create decent work in Australia involve the following. The regulation of work and employment relations is now a decentralized regulation of work and employment relations, having individual contracts of employment, contingent forms of work, and a unitarist approach, in which collective forms of worker representations are diminished ( 2003). In addition, terms including ‘high commitment’, ‘high involvement’, and ‘high performance’ work systems have entered the language of employment relations to indicate new approaches by management, which stress the importance of teams, multi-skilling, and employee involvement, in order to achieve high levels of quality and productivity (2003). The application of having a more flexible working hours and duties is also a good strategy, including job control, use of new technology, changes in work organization, employee empowerment, involvement in decision-making, information-sharing, formal grievance procedures, non-hierarchical forms of work, and use of teams or autonomous work groups (2006).

 

The argument of this paper is that decent work is useful as it is concerned not only with what happens at the workplace and what employers, but is also about much broader issues in the society. Decent work for most individuals is about companionship and ideally, giving them an opportunity to take pride in their profession (2006). Among the desired features of a job includes ‘good people to work with’ and ‘ability to do satisfying and interesting things’, which involves the deepening of competence, or the ability to undertake  increasingly more challenging tasks (2006). With good employee relations within an organization, the management would have the opportunity to maintain and sustain good interrelationships with one another, thus improving the capabilities and knowledge of accomplishing tasks. Getting managers and employees with the appropriate knowledge and experience, skills, style, and attitude plays a very crucial role in ensuring effective and efficient operational performance (2006), thus, ensuring a decent and stable work that would provide Australian citizens with fulfillment and satisfaction. With good employee relations, possible problems arising in the company would be resolved, thus, maintaining the company’s good reputation, regaining employees’ trust, and ensuring their motivation. Motivation serves to be a key especially in terms of an employee’s performance, and becomes the drive for him or her to achieve his or her goal and exert effort toward organizational objectives and consequences. In addition, decent work requires the interaction of all the three actors in employment relations, namely the trade union, employers and the state. The interaction of these three enables the smooth, effective and efficient operations of organizations in Australia. This in turn, promotes the concept of decent work, for their interaction would promote and encourage all their views and actions that would establish all the rights that each employee deserve to have from their employers and from the state. Furthermore, the improvement and development of employment relations in relation to decent work would decrease cases of racism and discrimination within Australian organizations. Due to discrimination, some are denied of jobs, trainings, or in extreme cases, suffer brutal harassment and death because of wrong prejudice. In this sense, the improvement of employment relations would be beneficial in providing decent work for Australians and non-Australians alike, for equal opportunities for both women and men will be achieved. In addition, many will know the concept of cultural relativism and gender sensitivity thus, further decreasing the incidences for discrimination. With this, respect and justice will be upheld in the society, helping each to attain his or her rights and privileges. The interaction of such factors and changes leads to realization and understanding that employee relations poses an important role in providing a decent work in Australia.

 

It can be deduced from the discussion that decent work, thus, not only include the basic needs of employees, but also having harmonious relationships with colleagues to ensure teamwork, coordination and cooperation, for the effective operation of the company. It also includes the interaction of the three basic actors of employment relations, which are responsible for promoting and encouraging the concept of decent work. With this, it has been emphasized that decent work involves the interaction between employees and employers and involves much broader issues in the society.

 

Efficiency of charactor, comminication skills and form of procuremant

Introduction

They said that a success of a project is determined by the character and the communication skills of the project management rather than the procurement used. The project manager is responsible in handling the project. The project manager must ensure that all the processes and objectives of the formulated project plan are followed. But even though having a good project plan does not necessarily mean that certain project will eventually succeed. It needs a good project manager to supervise these plans. Generally, the project manager is the one responsible for the overall success of a project.

 

The Project Manager

In general the project manager is the one responsible for the overall success of a project. The project manager must then gain understanding and agreed on the overall objective of the project, the scope, the risk involve and that will emerge in the process, the approach to be use in making the project a success, how much the budget is for the project, etc. This also includes defining and adopting the specific project management procedure to be used in managing the project. This does not necessarily mean that the project manager must do all the work for themselves. There can be a team or certain people helping in order to create the Project definition and the project workplan as well. However, if error occurred in the process of attaining the project, the project manager is the one accountable for this error.

Once the project starts, the project manager must successfully manage all the process and control the work. The project manager must identify, manage, and resolve project issues that can arise while in the process of project completion. These issues must be resolve to avoid conflict in the project plan and to attain all the goals and objectives of the plan. Handling these issues is necessary to attain the target deadline of the project. It is also the role of the project manager to report the development of the project to all the stakeholders. It is the responsibility of the project manager to communicate with all the stakeholders of the firm. All the progress and issues must be discussed by the project manager to the all stakeholders; this will help to determine the capabilities of the project manager in handling the project at hand. The project manager must be capable in terms of identifying and managing project risk. Identifying project risk will help in formulating early solutions to solve these problems. Inevitable risk must be immediately managed and resolved by the project manager so that such problems would not become complicated. The project manager must ensure that all the solutions formulated are of acceptable quality. The project manager must ensure that only the scopes in the project plan are delivered in completing the project. The agreed project plan must be carefully followed, unless sudden changes are approved by the stakeholders. The project manager must ensure that these changes must be followed accordingly. It is also the responsibility of the project manager to collect metrics that will give sense of the progress of the project and whether the expected progress and results is attained. The project manager must also ensure that the projects overall workplan is equally assigned to all those who are part of the project. These works must be completed I time to endure that the project will be done in given timeline. The budget for the project must be responsibly manage and monitored. All this works does not actually mean that the project manager physically must do all this work, but they must ensure that all this works happen. If the project has problems, or scope creep, or feces risks, or id not meeting expectations, then the manager is the one to be held accountable.

A good project manager should have management skills, well organized, have great follow-up skills, must be process oriented, can do multi task, have a logical thought process, must be able to determine root cause, analytic, a good estimator and budget manager, and self-discipline. These qualities will the key asset of a project manager in attaining project success.

A project manager is also responsible in managing all the people included in the project. A good people management skill is also necessary for a project manager. The project manager must ensure that all the standard processes and procedures are followed by the people. It is the responsibility of the project manger to monitor the people in the project. The project manager must establish leadership skills to get the people and teams in the project to willingly follow directions. Leadership is about communicating a vision and getting those involved in the project to accept and strive to make that vision come true. People in the project must be hold accountable to meet expectations; the project manager must be able to account feedback on member performance. Team building skills is also necessary for a project manager, so that people feel motivated and work together for the sake of the project and for their other team members. The larger the team and the longer the project duration the more important it is to have a good team-building skills. A good project manager is necessary to have good communication skills verbal and written, including good listening skills. Constant communication must be kept by the project manager to all those involve in the project.  If the team and the people behind the project has poor morale and is not meeting the deadline, the project manager must resolve this. It is the responsibility of the project manager to make the team understand what they need to do and when it is due.

Depending on the projects size and its complexity, the project manager must be able to do multi task. Project management is a particular role even when the project manager id working in other roles as well. For example: the project manager may assist in gathering business requirements, or help design a database management system, or write the project documentation. Let’s put it this way, the project manger manages the project for 45% of their time, and they also perform business analysis for 25%, work on design for 15%, and still write the documentation for 15%. This simply means the project at hand is not large or complex enough that needs a full-time project manager. A project manager may have a full time role on a large project. A certain project may require a certain level of skill and responsibility for a project manager. On one project, a project manager may be both a project manager and an analyst.

In some organizations, the project manager is held accountable for the project’s success, but does not have the right level of responsibilities. For an instance, the ability of a project manager to resolve issues may be hindered because the project manager’s position in the organization is not high enough to quickly resolve an issue.  All issues are resolve by the stakeholders or those who are in higher position to decide for the company. The only responsibility of the project manager is to report problems and issues to the stakeholders.

 

 

 

Procurement Process

In general, procurement process is the process of acquiring services, supplies, and equipment in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. In modern business, procurement is usually consists of different seven steps. The procurement process is part of a business plan and must be followed and supervised by the project manager. The project manager is the one in charge to follow these steps for the success of the business. The following steps are as follows:

 

Information Gathering

If a potential customer does not yet established a relationship with the sales marketing function of the suppliers of their preferred products and services, it is then necessary to search for suppliers who can satisfy the customer demands and requirements. Information regarding the potential customers and the potential suppliers who can provide the needs of the customers must be gathered. Through research the organization can gathered important information’s about the capacity and capabilities of a potential supplier. This information will help in determining the best choice of suppliers. This will inform the organization of the strengths and the weaknesses of each supplier by this means each potential supplier in the list will be filtered to determine which of them the best in terms of providing service. By means of conducting survey to the customers, the organization can gain knowledge of the customer’s demands and needs. This will help in knowing what product to market, who can be the best supplier for this products, and what course of plan and actions to under take.

The project manager can organized and supervised a team that will conduct the necessary research and survey to gather the required information. The project manager will be the one responsible to compile this information’s and report them to the organizations stakeholders.

 

Supplier Contact

When one or more suitable suppliers are identified, the organization can advertised Request for Quotation (RFQ), Request for Proposal (RFP), or Request for Information (RFI), and the organization can now directly made contact to these suppliers. This process is actually doing business with the potential supplier whom the organization distinguish capable in giving the best products and services. A supplier should also be flexible enough in terms of adapting in sudden market trends and demands. Once the organization had made contact with the potential supplier of choice the next step can now be done. The capabilities of a certain supplier should be given consideration. A supplier should be capable enough to provide the organization with products and services that are required by the customers.

            The project manager is the one in charge in communicating with the potential suppliers. Good communication skill must be demonstrated by the project manager. The project manager can then send request to the potential suppliers stating the nature of the request. Communication with potential supplier is necessary in the progress of the business.

 

 

Background Review

The references of the product and services offered by the supplier must be studied and carefully examined by the organization. These products and/or service should meet or even exceed the required and the expected output of the organization. Also any follow-up in terms of the requirements of the products and the services that includes installation, maintenance, and warranty must be thoroughly investigated to ensure security for the organization. Sample of the product and services being considered must be examined, and must undergo trials to make sure that it passes customer standards. The contract offered must be both agreed upon by the organization and the supplier. It should be carefully studied to ensure that it will not jeopardize the organization’s operation.

            The background of the products and/or services must be reviewed by the project manager. Of course, it is not the responsibility of the project manager to decide about the whole business but the opinion of the project manager will be given consideration by the organization’s stakeholders. Because the project manager is the one knowledgeable about the background of the products and/or services offered.

 

Fulfillment

This is the fulfillment of the procurement process. The supplier’s preparation in shipping and delivering the product will be tested. The payment for the products and services are completed, based on agreed contract terms. Installation of the new process and training in managing and handling them is also included. Training is necessary for the end users to adapt to the new process. This will teach the end user on the proper usage of the new process. The end user must be trained for them to have a thorough understanding of the newly installed system. The new system will be fully functional only if its user is adept in using them. The functionality of the new system will be fully attained if the user is trained and knowledgeable enough in using the new system.

Once fulfillment phase is initiated, the project manager must then ensure that risks are manage in this phase. Risks are unexpected and can occur in the long run of the process. Managing and solving these risks is the responsibility of the project manager. Early solutions must be formatted to solve such risk.

 

Consumption, Maintenance, and Disposal

After the organization had made a decision on which supplier should provide the needed product and/or services. The organization must evaluate the performance of the new product and service, as well as the service of the supplier, as they are consumed. The evaluation of the product and services will determine if the organization can dispose them or to continue production. If these products and services did not meet the required output expected the organization can invest in other supplier that can meet these requirements. If a certain suppliers deems incapable to produce the expected results and outcome of the organization, the organization can then look for new suppliers to provide the necessary service.

            Again it is the project manager who is in charge to report the performance of the new product and/or services, and the performance of the supplier to the stakeholders. The stakeholders then decide about performance report given by the project manager.

 

 

Renewal

When the product and services had been consumed and/or disposed, or when the contract expires, or the product or service is to be re-ordered, the organization’s experience with these products and services are reviewed. If the product is to be re-ordered, the organization must decide whether to continue doing business with the same supplier or if the organization finds the recent supplier incapable to meet the expected service, the organization can consider other suppliers service.

 

            Managing all the process doesn’t necessarily mean that the project manager will be the only one to do all these. The project manager can designate people to handle other process but these people are the responsibility of the project manager. For example: in the fulfillment phase; the project manager can designate a person who will be responsible in monitoring the shipment of the products. The project manager must ensure that the person incharge is knowledgeable in terms of logistics and shipping. That person is accountable to report to the project manager the progress of the shipment. These reports are then forward to the stakeholders by the project manager, who is in charge of communicating with the stakeholders. The project manager is mostly in charge of the whole process of the project. Most of the works of the project manager are complex and a necessity in attaining project success. A project manager should be capable in handling these complexities in order for the success of the project and the business.

 

 

 

References:

 

 

 

 

Total Quality Management: Healthcare in Queensland, Australia

Total Quality Management: Healthcare in Queensland, Australia

Shortage of Doctors and Nurses in Queensland Healthcare Industry

 

            Total Quality Management or TQM was coined by the U.S. Naval Air Systems Command to describe its Japanese-style management approach in terms of quality improvement (2007a). It comprises four process steps, namely, Kaizen, which is to make processes visible; Atarimae Hinshitsu, which is to focus on intangible effects on processes; Kansei, or examining the way the user applies the product; and Miryokuteki Hinshitsu, which broadens management concern beyond the immediate product (2007b). However, in more general terms, TQM is defined as a management approach for an organization, centered on quality, based on the participation of all its members and aiming at long-term success through customer satisfaction, and benefits to all members of the organization and to society (2007b).

From this, it can be understood that the aim of TQM is to improve and develop the system and approach of an organization for customer and employee satisfaction. This form of management is crucial for any organization belonging to any industry, for this determines the quality and extent of service that they can offer their customers. However, not all service sectors meet the standards required in providing quality management. Several issues can still be determined, which allows the further improvement of the service industry. Issues include the lack of funds and resources, which allow the service industry to improve and upgrade their facilities and provide the needs of employees and customers, the lack of manpower or talents, the lack of strategies in attracting and retaining customers, and the lack of strategies of sustaining and maintaining employees. In addition, providing benefits and compensation for employees and ensuring a healthy and safe working environment are also issues to be addressed. It has been reported that in today’s successful service organizations, safely and health management concerns go beyond the physical condition of the workplace to a regard for employees’ mental and emotional well-being and a commitment to protecting the surrounding community from pollution and exposure to toxic substances, which now involves the employees at all levels (2002).

Equally important, this type of service is vital in the healthcare industry, especially to hospitals and other health related establishment, where patients and health-deficient individuals rely upon their efficiency and expertise. However, due to uncontrollable circumstances, the quality of service in the healthcare industry has been declining, and this presents a myriad of quality issues and challenges in the service sector. A relevant issue that can be addressed is in terms of the service and facilities of public or government hospitals and health clinics, which have focused on the reduction of spending with their facilities and with allocation of public health care dollars (2002). An example of which are acute care hospitals, for they are complex institutions comprised of numerous medical specializations in which physicians have considerable decision-making power (2002). The reduction of allocated resources and government spending results to the lack of facilities and healthcare professionals in terms of the quality of service rendered in government hospitals, thus, lessens also the amount of healthcare services that patients receive from them. In addition, the lack of government spending and resources leads to the constraint of human resources or talent, taxpayer funding, transparency or information-sharing, lack in the establishment of effective projects and infrastructures, citizen involvement, and service delivery (2007). On the other hand, service and quality issues are also being faced by private hospitals and healthcare facilities, which consider a number of factors in order to function and render service effectively. In low and middle-income countries, factors, such as those that add to discrepancies between provider knowledge and practice are being faced. Private hospitals perceive and experience patient and community pressure in order to provide treatments, lack the capacity to enforce regulatory controls, and lack multi-faceted strategies, including the local adaptation and distribution of information (1998). In relation to this is the pressure and challenge of educating patients and communities, so that they will be able to adopt achieve treatment-seeking and treatment-taking behavior, feasible mechanisms for guaranteeing and monitoring service quality, and self-regulation by provider organizations or provider accreditation (1998). With these problems and challenges, the salvation of private hospitals in relation to the development, improvement and evaluation of strategies would depend on the involvement of their stakeholders and policy makers, and practical, inexpensive, effective, sustainable and efficient interventions, to achieve their goals (1998).

              Moreover, a specific issue to be addressed in the healthcare industry is the recruitment of healthcare professionals, such as doctors and nurses, in relation to the control of quality management. Quality management is a method or process, which ensures that all activities needed to design, develop and implement a product or service are efficient and effective with regards to a particular system and its performance (2007). With this, it can be understood that this method encompasses all other strategies and techniques implemented in service organizations, which are responsible for attracting and retaining healthcare professionals in a specific healthcare institution. However, despite the existence of this type of management, several problems and issues are still faced by healthcare and service institutions, in relation to the recruitment and retention of its skillful workforce. Primarily, like any other service organizations, hospitals and other health-related establishments must be able to advertise job and position openings to attract skillful healthcare professionals. The issue that must be addressed here is the ability of the healthcare institution to utilize different available advertising channels to be able to catch the attention of healthcare professionals. Today, the use of the World Wide Web in terms of advertising could be utilized, for its use is becoming more and more indispensable (2006). This then, becomes a means for attaining quality management strategies, for an effective use of advertising channels can be a particular strategy in order to develop, design and implement a product or service (2007). Second, it has been reported that quality has been seen as a natural consequence of a sound medical education and good intentions on the part of medical practitioners, which are related to professionalism, trust and clinical autonomy (2000). With this, an issue that can be addressed is the fact that to be able to render efficient and effective service, a healthcare institution must recruit and select skillful and experienced doctors and nurses. This issue becomes relevant to the concept of quality management because the recruitment and selection of right healthcare professionals would become crucial for the effective operation of the whole institution. Considerations that can be considered include the specialization and skills of the healthcare professionals, the academic institution from where they obtained their education, the referrals from their previous work or referrals from reliable sources, and their experiences in the related field. The consideration of such factors can be used to effectively select the rightful employee for the job.

            Another issue to be addressed is selecting a healthcare professional, who has the similar beliefs, mission and goals as the ones being implemented in the healthcare institution. Although the primary aim of doctors and nurses is to improve the health conditions of their patients, they must still conform to the standards of the hospital and focus on rendering the highest possible standard of service that they can afford. With this, the role of the Human Resource team would be highlighted for the members of the team will be responsible for making decisions in the selection and recruitment of employees. The issue that must be addressed here is the fact that the HRM team must be able to choose the rightful employees, who could be molded to adopt and implement the mission and vision of the healthcare institution, in line with its intention of rendering effective, efficient, and quality service to patients.

            In line with the responsibility of healthcare professionals is their need and requirement for effective and efficient hospital equipments and facilities. However, the intention and responsibility of doctors and nurses will not be attained without effective and efficient hospital facilities that would cater to the needs of their patients. The issue to be addressed here is the ability of the healthcare institution to provide for the needs and requirements of doctors and nurses in terms of facilities and equipments. This aspect can be a particular consideration in the recruitment and selection of doctors and nurses, for they must be able to adapt to the facilities and equipments available to the healthcare institution. In relation to this is the fact that because of the drastic and continuous development and improvement in technology, education, and communication, the use of more sophisticated and advanced pieces of equipments are being implemented in healthcare institutions to enhance the services that hospitals can render. The issue to be addressed here is the crucial selection of skillful healthcare professionals who are willing to learn new strategies and techniques that would help the healthcare institution further improve and develop. Having effective hospital facilities is determinant in implementing quality management, as indicated in the study of  (1999), who emphasized that with effective and advanced facilities, quality management in hospitals in Australia is improved and achieved, in relation to the use of its skillful healthcare professionals. From this discussion, it can be understood that Total Quality Management has a lot to do with the effective and efficient improvement and development of healthcare institutions, along with its crucial role in the recruitment and selection of skillful and rightful healthcare professionals.