Thinking Made Easy

Describe the primary characteristics of culture

1. A. Describe the primary characteristics of culture. Give Examples. (10 marks)

 

            In order to assess and learn the primary characteristics of culture, we must first know and understand the meaning of culture. So what is culture? Culture, according to the scholar and anthropologist of the 18^th century,  “culture is that complex whole that includes knowledge, belief art, law, morals, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. “So, based on this definition, we could say that culture depends heavily on society. It is, in a way, a collection of ways and course of doing things, which is an end result of human interaction with one another. It is, as you could say, a polished product of human experience. As time moves on, culture changes and grows more complex than it was before. If we would be lucky enough to be alive when the year 2050, we would be stunned to by the definite change of culture by then. Another important aspect of culture is the use of material objects; this is more commonly referred to as material culture. Evolution of some of these objects also makes the evolution of culture much more possible. For example, the computer was unheard of in the time of Newton, but through human experience, skills and needs, it is very much a common place object today and plays a very vital part of the existence of our society and culture. Though the evolution of the material culture is relatively important, much more important aspects are the skills and knowledge we acquire through the usage and application of these objects in our daily lives. All the skills we acquire, all the knowledge we gain, and all the purposes of these thing are more commonly referred to as the non-material objects of culture.

            And now that we know the essentials of culture, we can now further understand the growth and development of culture through its primary characteristics.

            Culture is learned. Man is not born with culture, but with the ability to learn, acquire, and develop culture through experience. For example, a child is born not knowing what culture is or how things are done in the eyes of society. But he learns through imitating, how thing are properly done. He then develops the necessary tools to go about his daily activities. Also, through the help of language, this is the primary tool for communication; the elder generation can pass to the younger generation the knowledge and skills they had acquired through experience. Therefore, because of these things, you could say that culture is learned.

            All people have varied culture. There are differently groups of people around the world, and we call these groups different societies. A society may be a group of people banding together and living in a stable union, and pooling together their efforts to attain a common objective by collective action. Knowing this, people should not judge a custom of one society using his own since they both have different societies and culture. For example, in the Americas, there are many societies in the continent of the Americas; they have developed different cultures and norms from each society. The differences between societies lie in the rapidity and complexity of changes occurring within the society. No matter how much the complexity or the advancement of the said society has gained, it still has a culture unique to itself. Therefore, no culture is far more advanced or civilized than the other.

            Culture is a group product. Culture was not designed by man to become what it has become. It is simply the accumulation of certain practices acquired by man through his interaction with other people. For example, you and your group may start out on a research. You may find a good method in doing this research with the help of another group mate. Other members may find a better way of improving the method you used in doing the research. And in due time, other groups may seem interested in your way of doing your research and may try to imitate it. Just one person in the group may not be a Man just adapted whatever practice was most useful to him at the time and then went on to keep that practice as time went further on. Therefore, culture is not only learned but is also transmitted through human interaction and experience. A generation may put an imprint upon the one before it, thus, making an accumulation and selective result of group life.

            Culture is transmitted from generation to generation. This may happen through oral traditions or in writing. It may be transmitted through everyday conversation, through interaction between the older and the younger, and even through reward and punishment. Culture is accumulated and whatever the past has learned, the present and future generation may build on it to produce something better which may aid them more as they go along the roads of everyday life. For example, when people in the early days wanted to preserve food to keep them from rotting, they put them in barrels filled with salt or put in seasoning or exposed them under the sun to dry. By doing that, they are still ensured of having meat which wasn’t rotten but lost the flavor of fresh meat. So, the future generation invented a better way of preserving the meat and its flavor, by freezing it, and they accomplished that with the aid of the refrigerator.

            Another means of transporting knowledge from generation to generation is through books and spoken language. The accumulated knowledge and learning of the bygone scholars and great thinkers of the past are imparted to us through the books and other written materials in which they have so tediously spent their lives writing. And also, through the spoken medium; oral traditions may not have been successfully passed to the younger generations if not through the use of songs, tales, stories, and other such things. That is why communication arts is a very important part of the school curriculum.

            Culture is adaptive. Culture continually renews itself. It is even said that nothing is much more predictable than death, change, and culture change. Humans have a way of inventing things when he is in very much need of it. If he finds that the method he uses is no longer obtaining his desired results, he then turns to a new strategy which may give to him the results he so desires. For example, a teacher may find her class very rowdy, noisy and out of control. So she tries to shout on the top of her voice just to get the class’s attention. But It would only cause more of the riot, so, she tries another method. She keeps quiet and waits for the class to settle down. And settle they did. You see, this discovery of hers may result in a new behavior pattern which satisfies the characteristic mentioned above.

 

 

1. B. Under what circumstances should international business people impose the values of their culture on foreigners with whom they do business? Does it make a difference if the activity is conducted in the home or host country?

 

            Everyone has a background of a great culture and values which they are really proud of. But of course, limits must be taken when carrying the business over into another country. One must be able to know when it is right to impose certain values of their culture on the locales and when not to. International business is a way of bringing your culture to other places in the world. By doing that you are able to showcase great things about your culture, even bad ones. But still, knowing the limitations is a good practice for anyone. It’s a sign of respect for the culture and values of the people you are doing business with. We all know that we are a diverse community. We all have societies, and in the heart of these societies are values that we deeply cherish. We also know that there are people out there who do not share the same beliefs as ours. It is a universal truth. No one can alter that. All one can do is to respect the beliefs of others as you want your beliefs to be respected.

            When doing business with people with different backgrounds from yours, you must at least know their customs, traditions and values in order to not offend your business partners. But that doesn’t also mean that you would entirely forget your values. When you think that this certain practice in your country can bring a positive result for you and won’t, in any way, offend your foreign partners, then don’t hesitate to impose it.

            Whether you’re conducting the business in your homeland or in other parts of the world, it is of course proper that you know the limits of imposing your culture to the people you are doing business with.

            For example, you take your business to another place. Let’s say you own a soft drinks company; let’s say Coca-cola. After establishing your business in the US and watching it grow and flourish before your eyes, you are then struck by a great idea. Why not take the business abroad? Why not venture into an international business? Since it was a big hit here in the US, why not try to take it outside? And so did the management of Coca-cola. They brought their famous soft drink brand to other parts of the world. It was all such a big hit. Why? Because they knew when and when not to impose their culture upon those people whom they do business with. They knew how to mix their culture with the culture of the people they do business with. Like in the Philippines. The manufactures of Coca-cola tickled the minds of the Filipino people by mixing their culture with the American culture. They incorporated the Filipino values with those of the Americans and it made such an impact on the people that coke became a very big success, and still is in the Philippines and even the other parts of the world.

            One must also always remember that the people you work with have values and traditions that they also cherish. They would not want it to be trampled upon much more to be insulted.

            It is only a matter of putting the right things in the right place. One mustn’t be too assertive, but mustn’t also be too timid. One must know the right time to do the right thing and must also bear in mind that he is working with people with backgrounds different from his. One must be very careful as to not offend the other party; he must take great efforts in knowing the cultures and values of the other party as to avoid unnecessary misunderstandings. And lastly, he too must try to, even in the most little way show that he is very interested, or he respects the culture and values of the other party  with a great deal. He must at least incorporate an aspect of the other party’s culture in his business in order to win the trust and respect of the people he does business with.

            It makes no difference whether the activity is held in the host or home country. One must respect each others cultures. One key point of international business is that one gets to share his culture with the other parts of the world. But in the sense that we value our own culture and traditions, let us also value diversity and difference. That way, we will be able to conduct peaceful and wonderful businesses with other people from other parts of the world.

 

Case Question 1

Go back in time to 1986. Do a SWOT analysis for Telefonica De España. Does your analysis lead to the same conclusions as Telefonica’s managers?

 

SWOT Analysis for Telefonica de España

 

I. Strengths

-Strong Position in Spain. They knew that domestic demands for telephone services would continue in the underserved Spanish market

-Has competitive advantage vis-à-vis local entrepreneurs. They knew well that they are more advanced than local businessmen in accessing technology, capital, and managerial talent.

-Linguistic and cultural ties between Spain and South America. Against any other foreign company that may chose to invade South America, they had greater advantage, culture-wise and linguistically.

II. Weaknesses

-Lacked access to the latest technology and managerial talent. They had poor or less access to the latest technology and had poor or less management skills.

-Lacked competitive advantage against foreign competitors. Their competitors had by far, the greater skill than they and that they had access to better technology than Telefonica.

 

III. Opportunities.

-South American markets. With their almost similar ties and culture, they can be sure that the locals would prefer them over other foreign company.

-Local market. They had a strong position still in Spain.

IV. Threats

-Entry of Foreign rivals. The entry of foreign rivals who offered cheaper prices, more advanced services and smaller profit margins posed a great threat on them.

-Abolishing of telephone monopolies on 1998. Any European firm could provide service to anywhere in Europe.

VI. Conclusion.

            The option to invade the other European markets would have been futile since they had a much greater advancement in marketable skills than those of the Telefonica de España. If the Telefonica did push through with their plan for Europe, they would have lost the business battle. Their investments may have stagnated over the years since their competitors could offer a better service than they. It would have been an impossible feat to attain. It would have been better if they averted their eyes somewhere else. To a better location where there lay no competition for them. And there was a better location: South America.

            Seeing the opportunities that lay ahead if I took the Telefonica to South America, I also would not have hesitated. Since language and cultural barriers are almost non-existent, it would be easy for me to make it into the South American markets. And plus, I also have advantage on both local and other foreign investors. I may lack the technological advantage compared to other foreign companies, but I have the upper hand in communication. The same goes for the local entrepreneurs. I have a more superior technological and managerial advancement compared to them, and linguistic and cultural barriers do not exist so I still get the upper hand. If I were put in the situation of the marketing strategists, seeing that I had everything to gain and nothing to lose, I’d wisely invest in the South American markets.

 

 

 

Case Question 2 (6 marks) (Approx. 500 words)

How would you characterize the corporate strategy adopted by Telefonica?

            I can characterize the corporate strategy adopted by Telefonica de España as local skeptics dubbed as “conquistador capitalism”.

            As Telefonica joined the European Union, they were faced with a lot of threats and competition because of other countries entering their borders carrying with them technology and promises of good service with cheaper rates. And, the European Union also announced that on 1998, state-sponsored telephone monopolies would be abolished and that any telecommunications firm would be able to provide service anywhere in the European Union. They tried to assess their choices. Should they close their barriers against other potential rivals from the European Union? Should they change their marketing strategy and their scope of operations? Or should they try to enter the European Union markets and try to compete with other European rivals whom they know had better advantage managerial and service-wise?

            Seeing that they had no bout against the other big European companies such as British Telecom and Deutshe Telekom, who had better exposure and experience with managerial approaches and access to more moderns and advanced technology, they forgot about the plan of conquering the European markets and instead averted their eyes to the South American market. Seeing that they had much more of an advantage there against foreign investors and local owners, they started buying shares from soon to be privatized monopolized telephone companies. Soon they were cutting off thousands of workers to remove “unnecessary” costs but still doubling its network rates. They also bought almost all the shares in telephone companies in the south Americas, making tem the biggest private telephone company. But there were also down sides to that. Minority share holders had lots of complaints that the parent company charges exorbitant fees for its rendered services and that the parent company transfers product lines with high growth potential from its subsidiaries to itself.

            I believe that the skeptic’s name for Telefonica was correct. It totally conquered almost the whole South America’s telecommunications system and has more than doubled its network lines in SA compared to the ones it has in Spain. But still, because of its aggressive approach to the South American markets, it has earned for itself a lot of criticisms and also lots of complaints from the people it renders its services to. Though it earned and even tripled everything that it had back in Spain, it was not exempt from competition. Seeing its success, Bellsouth signed up 1 million cellular phone subscribers in Sao Paolo, rendering almost half of the market there within only 10 months of operation. Bellsouth now poses a great threat to the “New Conquistador”. Whatever its approach may be, it had better think of the possible outcome, and since the world is entering the 21^st century, it must be able to give a better service to its customers rather than lose them to new competition.

 

 

            Before we begin to address the problems and complaints of the minority shareholders, let us first examine what their problems are.

Minority shareholders in Telefonica South America have been complaining about the exorbitant management fees the parent company is charging which is causing their interest to dwindle and also, they complain about the practice of the parent company to transfer product lines which have high growth potential from the subsidiaries to the parent.

            It is only normal for the minority shareholder to feel unhappy with the way Telefonica South America runs the South American telecommunications market. It was pointed out that due to their charging of excessive management fees, the subsidiary companies have lesser interest and also the practice of taking away a high growth potential product line from the subsidiaries to itself. It is really normal for the minority shareholders to be angry since that could have doubled or even tripled their income but since the parent corporation took it away, as well as charging them with insanely high fees.

If I were a senior manager of the Telefonica South America, I would of course listen to their complaints first. I’d study their complaints very well and I’d look if there is any validity to their complaints. If I do find that what they are complaining to me about is really valid, then I’d assess what I could be able to do to help them. First, I’d look at their major complaint: the exorbitantly high management fees. What is the basis for the parent corporation to charge really high fees on the minority shareholders? If I could see that they are rendering good management services from the parent corporation, then I can see no reason for their complaints on the fees charged to them. Giving out good service is well worth a high price any day. But if I can see that the parent corporation is charging insanely high fees for no good reason at all, then I would recommend to the CEO that they should lessen the fees charged to the subsidiaries, since charging them with really high fees could lessen their revenues. It would be bad for the subsidiaries and for the parent company in the long run. They might lose their grip on the South American markets. Since there will be other investors coming into the South American markets, they might find themselves losing their minority shareholders to other foreign investors that offer a better deal for the shareholders. It would also not be good for the image of the company if they would wish to venture to other countries besides South American countries because their reputation might precede them.

Next, I would try to view the other complaint posed by the minority shareholders: the high growth potential product lines and the practice of the parent company of transferring them from the subsidiaries to itself. I can really say that this is really an unfair practice because one can clearly see that the parent company is taking what should be for the subsidiary. I would recommend to the CEO that this practice should be stopped and that a chance should be given to the subsidiaries in order for them to increase their inputs through these product lines. As was said in the case study, the Telefonica South America subsidiaries’ value of shares stagnated for two years, even though the shares of the parent company continued to do well. The product lines should be returned to them in order for the value of their shares to go up.

The parent company should take good notice of these complaints posed by the Telefonica South America subsidiaries and also of the people who subscribe to them. Since in the long run, it would wholly damage, not only the reputation of the company but also the chances that they may be able to expand into other parts of the world. They should rid themselves of this negative image and should start giving high value services not only to the subsidiaries but also to the subscribers. And since other international companies are taking interest in taking the South American markets for themselves and being a threat to the Telefonica South America, the Telefonica SA should start with the reforms right away. Even as early as 1999 it was force to $8 million in refunds to Sao Paolo customers because of poor service. They should start minding the fact that we are entering the 21^st century and that the people now immune to the marketing strategies of the olden times. The strategies of the past no longer work on the people of today so they should start thinking of a new strategy or just reform itself for the betterment of its service to the people and the subsidiaries.

 

 

Case Question 4

Many South American countries are in the process of deregulating their telephone industries. How should Telefonica respond to increased likelihood of new entrants into its formerly protected markets?

            Before we delve into the issue of the deregulation of South American telephone industries and its effects on Telefonica, let us first examine what deregulation really is and its effects on countries that choose to deregulate any service or infrastructure it owns.

            Deregulation is the process wherein reforms are conducted on government control over business. Reforms on government control includes the

loosening or even withdrawal of interference with business behaviors. Parts of reforms also are liberalization of market entry and, in most nations, the privatization of state assets. The deregulation of telecommunications is very important in the aspect of globalization since it facilitates the integration of communication throughout countries thus making it easier for countries to do business in the international scale. ( 1998. Deregulation as a Political Process)

            Deregulation may also bring competition from other countries since it is open to other countries that choose to bring business to that country. It may pose a threat to already existing businesses but it may bring about a great positive outcome for the locales who wish for a high value service but for a cheaper price. It may even come to a war of who could give a cheaper price to the customers. It really is greatly beneficial to the customers since they would have more choices than before.

            Deregulation has reached the South American shores and they are now in the process of deregulating their formerly state owned telephone monopolies. This now poses a great threat to the “New Conquistador”. They may have stiff competition since the South American Markets are now open to other foreign countries as well. As was mentioned, Telefonica South America already has existing competitors since its success in the South American markets. BellSouth in 1999 signed up one million cellular phone subscribers in Sao Paolo, capturing half of the existing subscribers in that market alone. That could pose a really great threat to Telefonica and since the other countries are starting to deregulate their telephone monopolies, that may only be the beginning of their problems. And due to their poor service, in due time, they may even loose their grip on the South American markets to other foreign companies who offer better services at a cheaper price.

            Telefonica South America, in my opinion, should start giving out customer oriented services. I have read once before that the customers of today no longer fall for the marketing strategies of the olden days. They already know the pro’s and cons of the service that is being offered. They are really getting smarter on the aspect of marketing strategies and other such things. The marketing strategists of Telefonica South America should think of a better plan on hauling in the customers and keeping them subscribing to them. It may be easy to reel in customers but the really tough job is to keep them, especially with all the competition around. They should start reforming on their Customer Care and quality service aspect, if they intend to keep the South American markets under their reigns. They should also renew good relation with their minority stock holders because if they choose to withdraw their shares and invest in the new foreign companies, that would totally jeopardize the operations of Telefonica in the South American markets and their vision of being the 5^th largest telephone operations company would, all go down the drain.

            Therefore, they should really pay more attention to the greatest aspects of the business that they are totally ignoring: the minority shareholders and the customers. If those two aspects chose to go to other foreign companies, that would spell disaster for Telefonica. They should maintain good relationship with the minority shareholders and the customers because in the long run, the parent company would still benefit greatly from this union. Not only will they ensure that they would have their customers and investors firmly in place, they can also be assured that their grip on the South American markets will remain as strong as it was and that no foreign competitor can ever take its place.

 

 

Question 3. Case Question 1

Describe the fundamental issues in foreign market analysis for a firm like Heineken.

           

INDUSTRY BACKGROUND

            In the year 1864, Gerald Heineken founded Heineken, the world’s third largest beer producer, in Amsterdam. From the start of the firm, it has been marked with success; it was already exporting beer to France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and even the Far East. In 1914, Heineken decided to start exporting beers to the United States. Gerald Heineken’s son, Henri, who ran the firm at that time sailed to the United States to set-up the operation. While on the ship, he met a man named Leo Van Munching, who had impressive knowledge on beer. Heineken then contracted him to import and distribute Heineken’s products in the North America under the name of Van Munching and Company.

            From there, Heineken’s success would be ever so great. It is now currently exporting in 170 countries worldwide.

 

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS

An increasingly complex structure would probably best describe the make up of this industry. As the time demands constant change, the brewing industry players have innovated on all the aspects of their business, in production, and other aspects of business to cope up with the demands of an increasingly growing and demanding market worldwide. Innovations happen within the ongoing brewery industry, and the continuous decentralization of management structures and the strategy of diversification of output helped the industry in fostering a strong front in the face of economic crises. With the evolution of the manufacture of beer come sizeable changes in how the industry is run. As Heineken chose to venture into the international market, it was faced with a lot of challenges, including competition and the need to invest in newer facilities. Though change for this kind of industry was inevitable, it still retained much of itself and has not allowed itself to be changed for the worse. As of now, Heineken continues to on top of its game in every aspect concerning its business.

            Transitions in the manufacturer’s sourcing strategies exhibit the industry’s tendency toward diversification. Though Heineken has given its license to countries that chose to reproduce it locally, it still has not, in any way, lost its flair as a world-class beer.

            Heineken, before investing in another country should check the stability of the currency in the country into which it chooses to invest in. Let us take note of what happened to Telefonica South America in Brazil on 1998. Telefonica South America was forced to take $300 million write-off for currency loses after Brazil devalued its currency in 1998. Telefonica had a significant loss in Brazil due to the devaluation of its currency.

            Though exportation continues to grow, Heineken seems to continue reaping benefits from it. Exporting to other countries could mean the doubling of its profits and potential buyers could be added to its already existing list. It can open doors for the licensee and even for itself in its quest to conquer Europe and other countries as well.

            International licensing may or may not help the exporting country, it is worth a risk. The parent company should just take precautions for it. Though licensing the product may mean a risk involving the perception of the consumers and even risking the value of the product, it may still pose a great opportunity for the exporting country.

            On the whole, Heineken may seem to continue having good stroke of business on the international scale. As long as it maintains its strategic moves and that it continues to invest wisely, the business is going to enjoy continuous success both locally and abroad.

 

 

Case Question 2

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Heineken’s exporting its beer from one country to another.

            Heineken, as was said, is the third largest beer producer after Anheuser Busch and SABMiller. It’s established marketing dominance in Europe by buying out breweries to help facilitate its distribution throughout Europe. Not only does it distribute products in Europe, but in Asia, the United States and Africa and South America as well. They had boldly ventured into international business, knowing that they may face a lot of ups and downs in the international market.

            There are advantages and disadvantages occurring as Heineken exports beer from a country to another. Let us first examine the disadvantages.

First, Heineken has no total control over the price it can put on the beer it exports to another country. Take for example its distributing arm in the United States. Heineken rejoiced when it was able to purchase Van Munching & Company because as they acquired Van Munching that meant that the price Van Munching charged for every bottle of beer would remain the same and that would be added to the profit they make. 

            Another disadvantage is that they had to pay additional costs in exporting their products to other countries. Let us again take the Van Munching case as an example. Before they acquired Van Munching & Company, they had to pay other additional fees so they can export their product in the United States. Additional costs meant that the payments for the costs would come from the profit. That would also mean that they had lesser profit from every bottle they sell. Lesser profit means lesser input.

But still, there are advantages on exporting to another country.

First, they could sell in the global market. Beer is famous worldwide. It is very widely appreciated, especially among the male audience. And if the beer being sold is really world-class, that would mean that your business venture is a total success. And that is just what Heineken did. They sold their product in the international market, thus, their venture became a wide success.

            Another is that, culture-wise, you could also bring new tastes to other parts of the world. You can help other people from different countries know about how delicious the beer from your country tastes like. You might even be helping the foreign exchange sector by introducing your product to the world.

You might not know it, but the product you export can bring great help to the economy of your country and not to mention, it would even add to your profits. Economy of a country also depends on the export and import rate that it acquires. By exporting to another country, you may help your homeland in developing a stable economy. You may also stumble upon a great appreciative audience from another country that may become potential buyers of your product.

Also, you can help establish and strengthen economic and international ties. By becoming a bridge between two countries, one can help bring understanding between the two and eventually establish ties that may be beneficial to both countries.

And lastly, one may be able to find more potential business partners in exporting to other countries. One may find a business partner that is willing to cater to and audience of Heineken’s beer from another country.

All said, though there are certain disadvantages, the advantages are numerous. One can expect great things from exporting. Though it may cost a bit and it may take a while before the realization of a great company may occur, one must have great patience and have a great marketing and strategy planning mind as Heineken’s.

 

 

Case Question 3

What are the key issues facing Heineken in so far as international licensing is concerned?

            Before we venture into the issues faced by Heineken on international licensing, let us first examine and understand what international licensing is.

            International licensing occurs when one firm leases the right to use its intellectual property to another firm. Basically it’s like allowing another firm (the licensee) to recreate the product of another firm in its country (the licensee’s country) upon a mutually agreed fee. So the licensee bought the rights to recreate and distribute the product of another firm in its country, but is under some restrictions and constraints.

            Heineken has boldly ventured into international markets and so far has been a big success. It has made the right decisions so far and has gone on to be the third largest beer producer. Not only is it a big market seller in Europe, but also in Asia, North America and South America, and Africa as well. Though it still is very successful it still has a lot of major issues to face regarding international licensing and exporting.

            The key issues facing Heineken regarding international licensing is the fact that people may no longer find the Heineken beer as it was before. People’s perception can be a very important factor in the success or flop of an international product that is brewed locally. Though they know that the product is still made by the same company, if they knew it was locally produced, that would spell out a great disaster for the international company. Take for example the Miller case. It bought the rights to reproduce the Lowenbrau beer in Texas because it found it hard to keep up with the demands for the beer. When the consumers found out, sales for the beer dropped, partly because it was now locally brewed and was no longer imported and that it was perceived to have lost its “Bavarian” flavor. But the only actual difference is that is it was locally produced. It still had the same flavor and was brewed the same way. There we can clearly see the part perception plays in the success of an international licensed product.

            Another key issue Heineken might eventually face is that the original flavor of the brew might be mixed with a flavor from the locality, thus, losing its original, imported taste. It’s not about perception. That can really happen because the locality might greatly influence the taste and flavor of the locally produced beer.

If that happens, sales might drop. But it can also go another way and the sales might go up. It all depends on how the people react to the change. If they loved the original flavor, they might react to the new flavor the beer has. But it is really difficult to anticipate the reaction of the audience since the audience is varied.

            All Heineken can do is to take measures in case these things do happen. Heineken must be able to prepare itself. But before Heineken chooses to give out its license to a local company, it must be able to do this things first.

 Heineken must be able to know which company it should give its license to since the success of his business venture in that country solely depends on its distributing company. The licensee must be able to know the backstreets of the business in order to keep the distribution in a good shape.

Also, the licensee should be able to keep the demands for the product as high as possible, so as to keep the profit on a high state. The licensee must be able to keep the consumers demanding for more numbers of the product. It must be able to put up a lot of advertisements for the product so that the demand would not just be maintained but it would be kept in a very good state.

            Heineken is that it must be shrewd enough to choose the business partner that has the lowest demand. The licensee must agree on a high value of fees the parent company would charge on every bottle of beer it could sell. It is only a matter of choosing the most potentially profitable partner. That would greatly determine their profit from that country. If one could find a distributor that agrees on selling the product in a virtually profitable price, then that would be the perfect partner.

            Also, Heineken must keep track of its inputs and outputs in order to regulate the licensee’s operations.

            All in all, Heineken will be at no loss if it chooses to give out international license for its products. Since international businesses grow fast, it won’t take long for it to have its investment back. It’s only a matter of making the right business moves.

 

Ethnic/Racial Status Autobiography

Ethnic/Racial Status Autobiography

 

Introduction

            For many people, especially those in industrializes western cultures, individualism prevails. Adolescence is a time of separating from parents, becoming self-reliant, and defining one’s personal independent self and its connection to one’s own culture and society. Uprooted and placed in a foreign land, one’s identity-as a unique individual with particular traits, values and dreams- would remain intact. The psychology of western cultures assumes that your life will be enriched by defining your possible selves and believing in your power of personal self-control. By the last century’s end, individualism had become the dominant voice in popular culture. Western literature, from the Iliad to the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, celebrates the self-reliant individual more than the person who fulfils other’s expectations.

            Cultures native to Asia, Africa, and Central and South America place a greater value on collectivism. They nurture what   (1995) call the interdependent self. People are more self critical and have less need for positive self regard. Identity is defined more in relation to others. Malaysians, Indians, Japanese and traditional Kenyans such as the Maasai are much more likely than Australians, Americans and the British to complete and “I am” statement with their group identities (2001;  1997). When speaking, people using the languages of collectivist countries say “I” less often (1998). A person might say “Went to the movie” rather “I went to the movie” with the subject made clear by the grammar or context.

            With an interdependent self, one has a greater sense of belonging. Uprooted and cut off from family, colleagues and loyal friends, interdependent people would lose the social connections that define who they are. They have not one self, but many selves: self-with-parents, self-at-work, self-with-friends (1992). The goal of Social life is not so much to enhance one’s individual self as to harmonize with and support one’s communities. The individualized latte, “decaf, single hot, skinny, extra hot”, that seems just right at a North American Espresso shop would seem a bit weird in Seoul, note (1999).

            Self-esteem in collectivist cultures correlates closely with “what others think of me and my group”.  Self-concept is a malleable (context specific) rather than stable (enduring across situations). In one study, four in five Canadian students but only one in three Chinese and Japanese students agreed that “the beliefs that you hold about who you are (your inner self) remain the same across different activity domains. “.  For those in individualistic cultures, and especially for minorities who have learned to discount other’s prejudices, “outside” appraisals of oneself and one’s group, matter somewhat less. Self-esteem is more personal and less relational. Threaten our personal identity and we’ll feel angrier and gloomier than when someone threatens our collective identity.

            A comparison was made between Japanese and American college students regarding reported positive emotions and elatedness. For Japanese students, according to some researches, happiness comes with positive social engagement- with feeling close, friendly, and respectful. For American students, it more often comes with disengaged emotions- with feeling effective, superior, and proud. Conflict in collectivist cultures breeds more crime and divorce between individuals. Social facilitation experiments show that groups can arouse people. Social loafing experiments show that groups can diffuse responsibility. When arousal and diffused responsibility combine and normal inhibitions diminish, the results may be startling.

Peoples in the world, it seemed, have diverse thoughts about Globalization and its effects on them. Filipinos in a poll conducted by Social Weather System, for example, gathered that two out of every three Filipinos said globalization has positive effects on them and on their families. While the Ugandan senior officials, on the other hand, expressed worries about the side-effect of globalization. "Acceleration of globalization is often accompanied by a sharp increase in economic inequalities," said , Ugandan minister of gender, labor and social development, in her opening statement at a two-day national dialogue on the social dimensions of globalization.

            Prejudice, stereotyping, discrimination, racism, sexism- the terms often overlap. Each of the situations just described involve a negative evaluation of some group. And that is the essence of prejudice: a negative per-judgment of a group and its individual members. Prejudice biases us against a person based on the person’s perceived group. Prejudice is an attitude. An attitude is a distinct combination of feelings, inclinations to act and beliefs. This combination is the ABC of attitudes: affect (feelings), behavior tendency (inclination to act), and cognition (belief). A prejudiced person might dislike those different from self and behave in a discriminatory manner, believing them ignorant and dangerous. Like many attitudes, prejudice is complex and may include a component of patronizing affection that serves to keep the target disadvantaged.

            The negative evolutions that mark prejudice can stem from emotional associations, from the need to justify behavior and from negative beliefs, called stereotypes. Stereotype is a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are often overgeneralized, inaccurate and resistant to new information.

            In the context of the world, every race is a minority. Non-Hispanic whites for example are only one-fifth of the world’s people and will be one-eighth within another half-century. Thanks to mobility and migration, during the past two centuries, the world’s races now intermingle, in relations that are sometimes hostile, sometimes amiable. Racial attitudes can change very quickly. In 1942, most Americans agreed “There should be separate section for Negroes on streetcars and Buses” . Today, the question would seem bizarre because such blatant prejudice has disappeared. In 1942, fewer than a third of all whites (only 1 in 50 in the South), supported school integration; by 1980, support for it was 90 %. Considering what a thin slice of history is covered by the years since 1942, or ever since slavery was practiced, the changes are dramatic. In Canada too, acceptance of ethnic diversity and various immigrant groups has increased in the recent decades.

            I am a native Canadian and my ethnic race is of course Canadian. Having been raced with my family, it is quite evident that I have adapted to the Canadian style of living. Interactions with my family helped me be aware of my ethnicity and my racial status. Before I started school, I rarely had the chance to be exposed to other cultures other than my own. In our household, whether extended or close, family members always kept to made sure that we had our family values. This greatly helped me be aware of my heritage as a Canadian. Though I had limited exposure to my cultural heritage as a whole, having been exposed to it by way of my family, I was able to have a strong feeling towards my ethnicity.

            But still, having been raised in a western setting, I tend to be more on the individualistic side. Though other people’s opinion matter to me, it doesn’t really pull me down so much.

 

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Gender Relations and Media Norms

 

 

            Traditionally, gender relations are historic and cultural specified structure that regulates male and female interactions. Today, media and all forms of communication are central elements that affect the way of life with regards to gender and sexuality ( 2001, ). Media contains images and messages that influence the sense of identity. At the same time, media has directed and straightforward effect on various audience. Somehow, media can be assumed as a source of borrowing people’s identities.

            In this case, gender relations are perceived to be contributory to the formation of media standards. This report would like to explicate how gender relations shape media norms. The historic identification of the role of man and women in the culture is among the assumption to be used in discussing this report. Existing beliefs will be compared with regards of today’s role of man and woman in the society in connection to media representation. As example, the segregation of men and women and the idea of male over female are to be used to focus on the discussion.

 

Media Representation

 

Representation refers to the construction in any medium (especially the mass media) of aspects of ‘reality’ such as people, places, objects, events, cultural identities and other abstract concepts. Such representations may be in speech or writing as well as still or moving pictures (, no date). Media representation is an active, creative process through which images signify different meanings rather than merely presenting themselves as objective reflections of reality ( &  1999, ).

            The term refers to the processes involved as well as to its products. For instance, in relation to the key markers of identity – Class, Age, Gender and Ethnicity (the 'cage' of identity) – representation involves not only how identities are represented (or rather constructed) within the text but also how they are constructed in the processes of production and reception by people whose identities are also differentially marked in relation to such demographic factors. Consider, for instance, the issue of ' gazing ’. How do men look at images of women, women at men, men at men and women at women ( n.d.) Chandler provides a theoretical framework to illustrate the concept of media representation using the example of ‘cage of identity’.

 

Simply, a representation does not stand alone. It requires a medium to dissect its meaning and it is through the media that meanings are assigned to a representation. Depending on the media, a representation does not have a unique interpretation. Factors such as demographic profile of a viewer, social outlook, psychological stance, philosophy, ideology, culture, stereotyped meaning, etc determine the assignment of meaning to a representation. The circulation of meaning, however, always involves issues of power because those who wield power do so by attempting to fix meanings in accordance with their own bias. This is consistent with the idea that representation has assigned meanings which could be categorized as accurate or distorted depending on those who create and distribute a set of representations ( &  1999, ).

            In history, media affects people – both man and woman, old and young – in particular, in gender and sexuality. But today, the concepts of gender and sexuality as well as gender relations affect media itself especially on the acceptance of what is standard and sub-standard, acceptable or not acceptable. Here is an example on how gender relations affect media standards.

 

The Concept of Segregation of Sexes and Men over Women

 

            Primitively, the existence of gender segregation was evident. Today, with the emergence of contemporary principles and knowledge, this ancient belief was changed to some extent. Up to now, it continuously and dynamically evolves in its form. With the aid of media and all its ways and means, this is possible.

Media standards in relation to segregation of sexes are based on the role a character plays. For instance, domestic or romantic dramas in film or television (including soap operas) show us how males and females interact. When a person has a lover for the first time in their lives, how do they know how to behave? And where do we learn the typical shape and content of friendships? The main reference points are surely films and TV or even theatre.

Media norms on this aspect define the extent of the role of men as well as women in the society. Culturally, men are breadwinners. They are engaged in strenuous activities outside the house. On the other hand, women are expected to be caretakers of the family. They are kept within the vicinity of the house. Today, there are media portrayals and representation that are in contrast with the previously existing cultural belief ( 1999). Media depicts personalities, challenging the possibilities of reversing or bridging the gap of sex segregation. Gender relations shape a new belief that men could be equaled to women by means of collaborating them as one working pair towards a common goal.

The movie What Women Want (2000) is just one film to show gender relations and representations in the new millennium. The film stars Mel Gibson as an old-school sexist man, whose once-brilliant career as an advertising executive has started to flounder because of his inability to relate to female consumers. But then, an electrical accident endows him with the ability to hear women’s thoughts. With this movie, it challenges stereotypes by suggesting quite emphatically that men can and should learn to be more like women. However, the stereotypical ‘differences between the sexes’ are used and perceived to be essential to the humour of the whole film.

Media tries to equate the role of men and women in society today. These are apparent to some films where the male action hero works alongside a more-or-less equally powerful female action hero. For example, The Matrix (1999), Entrapment (1999), Tomorrow Never Dies (1997), The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997), Starship Troopers (1997), Deep Blue Sea (1999), X-Men (2000), The Mummy Returns (2001), and even Speed (1994), Titanic (1997) and Shrek (2001).

As related to segregation of sexes, the idea of male over female is old as the current year. Media norms in connection to this aspect were focused on the mere physical capability of men and women. At present, media standards challenge the idea. An instance disapproving the belief on the superiority of men over women is the film Panic Room (2002). If men are known to be courageous, it is the other way around in the movie. Jodie Foster’s house was invaded by three men, but she subverts the ‘damsel in distress’ environment by being clever and resourceful instead. One of the male crooks, meanwhile, is frightened and sensitive. There are also several films centered on leading female action-hero roles: Tank Girl (1995), The Long Kiss Goodnight (1996), the Scream trilogy (1996-2000), Alien Resurrection (1997), Mimic (1997), Mulan (1998), Run Lola Run (1998), Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), Charlie’s Angels (2000), Hannibal (2001) and Tomb Raider (2001).

 

The gender relations as depicted on the aforementioned films are based on the media representations of the characters. In connection to the formation of media standards, gender relations affect them in such ways that it will define the extent of reality. Media norms with regards to men and women are no longer ancient in nature. As  (1991, ) has argued, men and women are the same and different. Exploring their potentialities as well as their limits could be a mean to understand what is acceptable and what is not. In shaping media norms, gender relations  identify the different standards set for each sex that are useful in creating materials suitable to the practices of the existing culture. Anything that is in contrary to the host culture is considered taboo or unacceptable.

Gender relations play as a parameter to set what is acceptable and not acceptable, to be shown or not to be shown in the eyes of the people. It affects media authorities and practitioners to critically evaluate their materials before bring them out publicly. Meanwhile, it also collaborates to the ethics of life and at the same time to the professional practice. Truly, media is very powerful and persuasive agent of change. Its efficient practice will create positive impacts to the life of every being who utilizes it for personal development. Relations between men and women may have generated media structures by factual representations. This is why most researchers have taken up the mettle in understanding its functions and impacts, thus, to make  changing  matters pertaining to society, the least of which is that of public opinion ( 1992, ).

To sum, the mass media has become more liberal and considerably more challenging to traditional standards since then. This has been a reflection of changing attitudes and also involves the media actively disseminating modern values. It therefore remains to be seen whether the post-traditional young men and women of today will grow up to be the narrow-minded traditionalists of the future. Gender relations are historically specific and need to be understood as such. In general, gender relations will definitely serve as an imperative factor in shaping norms not only in media but to the society as a whole.

 

 

References

 

PAPER ABSTRACT ON CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Gender relations traditionally showed how men are superior to women. However, this idea have change nowadays, for women have equaled to the capabilities of men in doing things unlike before where men are traditionally the bread winner of the family while women stayed in their house to be caretakers. Media helped to represent the changing phase happened between the two. Media present the standards in relation to segregation of sexes based on the role a character plays; They affect them in such ways that it define the extent of reality. Its efficient practice will create positive impacts to the life of every being who utilizes it for personal development. Relations between men and women may have generated by media structures by factual representations. To sum, mass media has become more liberal and considerably more challenging to traditional standards since then. This has been a reflection of changing attitudes and also involves the media which is actively disseminating modern values.

GESTURES

Gestures

India has a diverse culture. It has sustained a long history of accommodating various cultures, religion and social levels. Yet, India remains grounded in tradition. Even the most progressive ones have their distinct Indian ways of doing things such as their attitude towards work, family and daily living. Because of this, a basic awareness if the common perceptions and differences in Indian attitudes has helped reduce the occurrence of culture based misunderstandings especially in doing business.

There are typically two types of managers encountered in India: (1) the more traditional and bureaucratic, loyal to the British traditions and systems and (2) the modern, progressive and entrepreneurial business leaders who are attuned to the global market (, 2007, ). Doing business in a high context culture of India entails a greater understanding of their culture regardless of what kind of mangers one is dealing with. The following are some of the gestures which are important to Indians.

• Beckoning is done with the palm turned down; pointing is often done with the chin
• The left hand is considered unclean. Right hand must be used for giving and accepting things and for hand shakes
• Grasping one’s own ears express repentance  or sincerity

            Beckoning someone is done by holding the hand out, palm downward and making a scooping motion with the fingers. Beckoning someone with the palm up and wagging the finger as in the United States can be considered an insult by Indians.  A very important factor in India is avoiding the use of left hand in any interaction with other people. No gesture must be made with the ‘unclean’ left hand (traditionally use for personal hygiene). It is never used for eating or handing a person with food or objects.  Anything must be given and received with the right hand or at least using both hands together. Using the left hand will be noticed although Indians it is less likely to be commented on by Indians. The use of the right hand id one of the easiest things which Westerners forget to do but makes a big difference. The grasping of one’s ears by an Indian designates repentance and sincerity. Ears are considered to be sacred appendages. Pulling or boxing someone’s ears is a great insult for them (, 1994, ).

          For non Indians, the most misunderstood Indian gesture is the northern habit of nodding the head and shaking it side to side. Westerners may be baffled when after Indian businessmen nodded energetically throughout their conversation may turn down the deal. The westerner may have misunderstood the Indian when the latter was merely indicating that he understood what the westerner is saying (, 1997, ).

In the Indian culture, the social freedom between the sexes is not appreciated very much except in some progressive communities. Normally, a stranger should not speak to a woman if he is not acquainted with her or her family. A stranger is not expected to help a woman as soon as her husband might resent it. For a young woman, to take the hand of a man who is not her husband is objectionable. Bold and emancipated women may dance with their husbands but doing so with anyone would be improper. Most women do not usually shake their hands in greeting (, 1997, ). The simple rule of thumb is to wait for the woman to offer her hand in greeting. If she doesn’t, one must respond politely with a half bow.

Shaking the right hand in greeting is a positive tactile act in low context cultures such as the United States but the same action in high context cultures such as East India or certain Arab countries would be an insult. The traditional Indian greeting namaste (also naamaskar or in the south vannakam) is uttered while holding the hands together as in prayer under the chin, slightly nodding the head and looking down. However, in business meetings, a firm hand shake is the most appropriate. When expressing sincerity or saying goodbye, both hands may be used for the clasp. Traditional greetings are very important. Hindus often bend low, touch their feet of their interlocutor and then touch their own head. This custom is related to caste system, but mainly to one’s family relationships and the age of the person in question (, 1997, ).

          Businesses in India are highly personal. They are conducted in a leisurely pace than in the United States because personal relationships are important for them. Because of this, a great amount of hospitality must be rendered. Tea and small talks are preludes to most business discussions and negotiations. Sometimes, it is necessary to go out on dinner with them. Saying no is harsh and refusals must be made discretely. In addition to this, thanking the host for the meal is also unpleasant because thanks is considered to be a form of payment. Returning the invitation is the most appropriate gesture because it expresses the value you give and strengthens the business relationship with them.

References

Multi-Source Essya on Bread Givers

Bread Givers

This paper is a multi-source essay which discusses the generation and cultural conflicts of Jewish immigrants. It discusses the mediation between the Jewish and the American culture with reference to the ‘Bread Givers’ by .

 

One of the problems faced by immigrants in the United States is culture assimilation. Typically, immigrants are met with the unyielding and often hostile environment of a new society. They are bound to make behavioral adjustments and to accept social structures and ideals to assume a new identity. The reflection of the American nation which includes not only its composition but also its values is encouraged through immigration. This dilemma is faced by Sara in the book ‘The Bread Givers’. Her desire for economic independence and resistance of her society’s cultural norms led her to a foreign land where in she was compelled to fit in.  Here lies the problem of functioning both in a Modern American world and one’s own culture.

Given this, immigrants tend to adapt to the culture of a foreign land so that they could fit in to their new found environment. Their desire for freedom is identified with leisure activities that spilled on behaviors unsanctioned by parents.  Unlike in Bread Givers, the daughters of Reb Smolinsky are expected to serve his every whim. The oldest daughter Bessie as depicted in the book has not mustered the courage to live for herself even at the expense of her own happiness. Fania and Masha are the two other daughters who both fell in love with men whom their father does not accept. The father wants his daughters to marry rich men who will support him believing that the only way women can get to heaven is by serving men (, 2001).

 As in the Jewish tradition, women are made to believe that the primary reason for their existence was to procreate and serve those who dominate them. As such, women rarely felt that they could have an impact in the society. Traditional Jewish households emphasized the maternal roles of women confining them to the value gained within the domestic sphere. On the other hand, men are capable of achieving authority with their constant participation in public roles (, 1998, )

However, the immigration to a more liberal society introduced a different orientation where one can experience a life free from the parental sanctions or approval. Young women are able to carve out cultural styles from commercial forms of amusements. Indeed, women played with identities through leisure where the boundaries of their immigrant working lives are pushed by trying new images (, 1986, ). The degree in which women are able to have independent social life varied among immigrant groups in America. The traditional bases of dependency as dutiful daughters in their patriarchal immigrant family are subverted by a new style defined by young working women (, 1986, ). Sara in her migration to US has experienced this kind of freedom in her effort to get a new identity.

In his article,  tackled the cultural and the generational conflict that occurred between the father and his daughter. According to , Reb Smolinsky and her daughter Sara are similar in terms of determination and their strong wills. Reb Smolinsky plunged deeply into his holy books while Sara made her way to attain her goal of becoming a teacher. This goes to reflect the cultural difference of traditional Jewish society to that of the American. Immigrants upon their culture assimilation are likely to get pre occupied by the opportunities presented by the land of opportunity. However, the balance between the two cultures may become far from reach.

The happy balance of Americanization and the Jewishness of Sara was suggested by  as something superficial. Equal acceptance in the American World and the complete reconciliation to her culture were among the issues left unresolved. Furthermore,  viewed that the circumstances under which Sara has escaped from the old Jewish ways were more of lamentation rather than reconciliation (as cited in , 2001).

The unsettling effects of America on newcomers are also reflected in ‘The promised land’ by  where she conceded that the freedom and the opportunities presented by the “land of opportunity” exact a steep price. She asserted that painful sacrifices are necessary in order to survive in America. Thus, the older generation needs to step down from parental authority and take the law from their more Americanized children. As a result, families that are formerly united and happy are disrupted.  described the challenges and the struggles of immigrant Jewish families. Furthermore, she resembled the enthusiasm for America which Sara Smolinsky has in Bread Givers (as cited in , 1998, )

In Bread Givers, Sara triumphs over her circumstances by realizing that her choices are not confined to servitude or to an arranged marriage. As such, immigrating becomes the easier way to escape. In the end, Sara still embodied the ideals of her culture as she pardoned her father and promised to take care of him. Shenah’s dying wish to Sara ‘to be good to father’ drew her back to the Lower East Side where she was reunited with her father (as cited in , 1998, ) Based on the Jewish law and tradition, fortunate members of the community has the responsibility to assist their less fortunate brethrens.

The American opportunity and the longing for the warmth and vitality of the Yiddish communities was both illustrated in Bread Givers and the Promised Land. While the Americanization was ultimately celebrated in The Promised Land, Bread Givers conclude with the misgivings of Sara to live with her father. The cultural and generational conflicts as suggested by the latter can be resolved with the willingness to compromise the honor of heritage in the pursuit of the new one. Sara despite the good fortune she had experienced in America realized that she could not “escape by running away...that the shadow of burden was always following her” (as cited in , 1998, ).

Furthermore, her education led her to the realization of America’s indifference towards her. Sara’s assimilation to the American culture resulted to her cutting off her Jewish characteristics. But no matter how she tried to fit in, she discovered the painful reality of remaining an outsider to a dominant culture.

Ultimately, Sara realized that neither of the two communities will accept her dual citizenship. As she returned to her family to share her accomplishments, she have resumed her obligations in the old world sense and thus sacrificing her chance to pass as an American (, 1998, ).

While the degree earned from college has gave Sara the financial freedom, her Jewish status has changed so very little. The dilemma faced by Sara remains unresolved until the end of the novel. She was suspended between the cultural perceptions and her attempt to create a new identity for herself (, 1998, )

The desire for self discovery which became conflicted with the Jewish identity and the Americanization can be considered the theme of Bread Givers. It is a testament of the struggles that Jewish immigrants faced particularly Jewish women in their search for a new world. The clash in culture and generation differences is manifested by the father and daughter relationship. Reb Smolinsky portrayed the old world traditions while Sara illustrated the image of a young Jewish woman who found her way to America. The desire for independence from a patriarchal family and the difficulties associated with the assimilation of an alien culture are both illustrated in the story.

 

Conclusion

 

            The desire to free oneself from a patriarchal family and a tyrannical father who is consumed by his old traditional ways were the primary motivations for Sara to escape. As she witnessed the tragedies brought about he father to her siblings, she decided to strike from home and make her way to achieve her dream of becoming a teacher.

            Jewish immigrants specifically women are confronted with cultural difficulties. As they assimilate to a new culture which is very much different from their born culture that confines them to maternal roles, they become confronted with frustrations to prove their worth and value.  Indeed, America presents greater opportunities for immigrants to achieve their dreams. As a land of opportunity, immigrants are attracted to such a foreign land in the hope of a acquiring better life for themselves.

However, there are prices associated with these opportunities. Immigrants are bound to make painful sacrifices in order to survive the sometimes hostile environment. Oftentimes, they are compelled to cut off their traditional characteristics to cope with the urban living. But despite all of these, remaining an outsider to a dominant culture is a painful reality they have to deal with.

            Ultimately, the longing for their home community is experienced by the immigrants. In this sense, immigrants cannot escape their heritage amidst the pursuit of their new identity.  As it has been illustrated in the Bread givers, Sara embodied the ideals of Torah in the end. The success she has achieved brought her a good fortune which she ultimately shared with her family. The difficulties she has experienced as an immigrant pave the way for the realization of her dream of becoming a teacher. Indeed, American living is never easy for immigrants and success is attainable through hard work and determination.

 

References

Books

 

Internet Sources

Media and Culture

Introduction to Media and Culture

            Perhaps, one of the unmistakable characteristics of the world today, is the pervading influence of media in all aspects of human life. From, what clothes to wear to who gets to win in the recent presidential race, people has learned to rely heavily on the use of media. Time may have changed tremendously but man’s thirst for knowledge and information has remained the same. This is the reason why newspaper, magazines, and to other information materials sell at an incredible rate, and perhaps this is what brought the dominance of the new media technology nowadays.  “Mass media" is a deceptively simple term encompassing a countless array of institutions and individuals who differ in purpose, scope, method, and cultural context. Mass media include all forms of information communicated to large groups of people, from a handmade sign to an international news network. There is no standard for how large the audience needs to be before communication becomes "mass" communication. There are also no constraints on the type of information being presented. Accurate media representation of world issues is crucial. Whenever media reports are censored or biased, the people's basic rights are systematically undermined. In these situations, violations and unaccountability often go unnoticed and suppressed viewpoints become commonplace. Most people get their view of the world from the media. It is, therefore, important that mass media be objective and present accurate and diverse representations of what go on around the world.

 

           

Accordingly, in the studies that demonstrates how some of the most popular cultural texts of the day are involved in current political and cultural struggles. The study of popular and mass-mediated culture has widely been labelled “cultural studies” this paper will provide some models of a media cultural studies that is critical, and multicultural (1991). A critical cultural study conceptualizes society as a terrain of domination and resistance and engages in a critique of domination and of the ways that media culture engages in reproducing relationships of domination and oppression. A critical cultural studies is concerned with advancing the democratic project, conceptualizing both how media culture can be a tremendous impediment for democratizing society, but can also be an ally, advancing the cause of freedom and democracy

The politics of culture and will develop a specific model of media cultural studies and engage in the debates concerning how best to study culture and society in order to fully grasp the production, nature, and effects of media culture. My approach also employs social theory to properly contextualize, interpret, and analyze the nature and effects of media culture. It is my conviction that cultural studies cannot be done without social theory that needs to understand the structures and dynamics of a given society to understand and interpret its culture. Assuming that media cultural texts are neither merely vehicles of a dominant ideology, nor pure and innocent entertainment. Rather they are complex artifacts that embody social and political discourses whose analysis and interpretation require methods of reading and critique that articulate their embeddedness in the political economy, social relations, and the political environment within which they are produced, circulated, and received.

Society and culture are contested terrains and that cultural artifacts are produced and have their effects within determinate contexts (1992). It is my conviction that the analysis of media culture within its matrix of production and reception helps illuminate its artifacts and their possible effects and uses, as well as the contours and trends within the broader socio-political context. Since the forms of culture produced by giant media and entertainment conglomerates are an immediate and pervasive aspect of contemporary life, and since media culture is both constituted by and constitutive of larger social and political dynamics, it is an excellent optic to illuminate the nature of contemporary society, politics, and everyday life. Indeed, The understanding popular Hollywood films, Madonna and MTV (Music Television), rap music and contemporary black films, and television news and entertainment can help us to understand our contemporary society. That is, understanding why certain artifacts are popular can illuminate the social environment in which they arise and are circulated, and can thus provide insight into what is going on in contemporary societies and cultures.

Media and Ideology

 

Ideology refers to the systems of beliefs about human conduct. These are the different ideas and principles that concern behavior. Accordingly this body of beliefs unites a group of people and more importantly facilitates social interaction. Ideology could be composed of beliefs, values and ideals. People’s beliefs usually dictate the way of life (1971). Through beliefs, individuals have a better understanding of how the world works. Values on the other hand, can be equated to the morals of the society, the concept of good and bad, right and wrong. Ideals serve as models for what people hope to achieve in life. These could also be referred to as the vision of the people. And as a result, this system of beliefs stimulates and precedes action. Ideology represents the distinguishing features, more specifically the characteristics, of the people of a community.

Many changes have taken place in the country's economy, technology, politics, and ideology. These changes have had consequences for the media, and for television in particular. Media and culture are based primarily on Marxist/Maoist cultural theories that proclaim that culture is part of the society's superstructure, which consists mainly of politics and ideology (1983). Therefore, to study changes in cultural importation is virtually to study the country's political, ideological, and social transition.

The contemporary theories of post modernity and hypermodernity for their relative neglect of the "growing gap between the rich and the poor" in modern society, reflecting changing social, political, and intellectual contexts and of particular concern is the manner in which social theorists tend to legitimize "the present trend toward growing inequalities." She concludes that "forceful and widespread critique" of these theories is vital to maximize their "egalitarian potential (1980)."

 

Today's Western societies can be characterized as being complex, dynamic, and reflexive. While the role of the state has decreased, the importance of the markets has increased (1957). Traditions are changing into fragmented narratives; traditional state authorities have been replaced with singular, often market-based, experts. We suggest that the current state of the social sciences can also be characterized by such attributes as complexity and reflexivity. Traditions are changing in the social sciences: The fragmented niche expert has replaced the academic intellectual. Earlier restrictions are in the process of vanishing because of international data communications networks, global mass media, and the increased mobility of researchers. As the dynamics of social change have become violent, social scientists also face continuous uncertainty; the individual social scientist is supposed to be flexible and reflexive. As a result, a new kind of design and ideology is emerging in the field of the social sciences.

It would be naïve to suggest that those who are active in shaping the sociopolitical arena, or the field of class relations, take out the time to peruse the writings of social theorists before they set out to devise social policies or to engage in political action (1977). It would be equally naïve, however, to deny that the ideas contained in prominent social theories while influenced by the intellectual climate of their societies also seep through into the same intellectual climate. And this, in turn, exerts an influence, even if watered down, on the beliefs of policymakers, on those of the leaders and activists of social movements, and on the media, as well as on public opinion in general (1981). In this manner, these theories also exert an indirect influence on struggles or the lack thereof--over policies, over programs, or, more broadly, over the forces that shape the construction of social and political reality.

This being the case, it is time that social theorists develop a fuller awareness of the close three-way connection between social theory, ideology, and social reality, particularly with respect to inequality, a connection that, like recent inequalities themselves, has been swept under the carpet. Perhaps such increased awareness would also lead theorists toward greater awareness of their social responsibility and would result in their paying greater attention to the issues in question (1992).

Many individuals practicing cultural studies celebrate this culture and way of life and thus contribute to the perpetuation of an unjust and oppressive social order ( 1980). The attempt to develop critical perspectives on contemporary society and culture in this book and believe that surrender of criticism and oppositional resistance is nothing more than capitulation to a way of life that produces incredible misery and suffering for people throughout the world.

Conclusion

People in the future may look back at this era of political and media culture with disbelief (1992). Perhaps denizens of an age of interactive technologies will look back at the passive couch potatoes of this era in wonder. Perhaps those able to access information from a wealth of sources from computer data-bases will be astonished that in this era the vast majority of people depended on television for their prime source of information. Perhaps later generations who have accessible a vast array of significantly different and better cultural texts at their fingertips will be amazed that people actually watched the programs of commercial television, radio, and film during the present era. Perhaps individuals in a future age will be astonished that people watched so much television, saw so many poor films, listened to so much mediocre music, and read such trashy magazines and books, hour after hour, day after day, year after year.

THE COLLAPSE OF POLYNESIAN CULTURE IN EASTER ISLAND

THE COLLAPSE OF POLYNESIAN CULTURE IN EASTER ISLAND

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

            World history has been characterized by exploration, colonization and evolution of mankind and cultures. Back in the early years when most parts of the world were still unexplored, certain nations set out into navigations and expeditions to discover other territories. Also, people experienced evolution as the world was discovered and cultures merged with one another. World history is an account of various processes such as mass migrations, imperial expansions, territorial activities and cultural interactions that transcended individual societies and cultural regions (2004). Europeans dominated the discovery of the world and were the leaders in instilling changes in technologies, commerce, culture, religion and civilization in many areas of the globe. In the sixteenth century, the Europeans aspired to discover Terra Australis Incognita or the Unknown Southern Continent.  This dream drove the exploration of the Pacific region. The Spanish navigator Ferdinand Magellan discovered Guam and the Philippines in 1521 and established the first colony of Europe in the former. This event marked the consequent colonization of European nations (2006). However, there was a certain group of ancient people that have sailed the vast Pacific Ocean before the Europeans did. These were the Polynesians who were closely connected to the ocean and took pleasure in fishing. The ocean and seas were treated with respect and relevance by these people that the seas were wholly immersed into their culture (2000).

 

THE POLYNESIAN CULTURE AND COLONIZATION OF EASTER ISLAND  

 

 

            The Polynesians were the original inhabitants of the Polynesian group of islands in the central and southern parts of the Pacific Ocean from 2000 to 5000 BC. These people were descendants of Tongans, Samoans, Cook Islanders, Tahitians, Niueans, Hawaiians, Maori and Marquesans. The ancient Polynesians were active seafarers and were highly skilled in navigation (2006).   The island culture of early Polynesians emphasized the importance of the double canoe and the navigator on it in the survival and existence of the people. They were vigilant people who took actions in times of overpopulation. As the populations of the Polynesian islands increased, Polynesians used their navigation skills to sail the enormous seas in search of uninhabited islands for some of their people to live in. These navigators who were tasked to explore would stay in boats and sail thousands of miles with the aim of discovering unsettled islands. The stars, the sun and other signs provided by the sky and ocean served as the primary guides on their navigation adventures (2000). The Polynesians originally came from Southeast Asia. They reached and settled in Tonga and Samoa islands around 1000 BC.  They used their navigation skills to move eastward to the Marquesas Islands in 300 AD and then in the fifth century, moved to the direction of the southeast to Easter Island and northward to the island of Hawaii. The last movements made by these people were to Society Islands and New Zealand between 600 and 800 AD (2006).

           

The history of Polynesian navigation and colonization is primarily marked by the settlement of these people on Easter Island, “one of the most remote and inhabited islands of the world” (2006). The story of Polynesian colonization on Easter Island and the culture that these people developed within the island is a tale of deterioration and total collapse. The early Polynesians arrived on Easter Island in the fifth century and they discovered the very limited resources, extreme level of humidity, and minimal species of animals and plants in the island. The Polynesians who settled on Easter Island brought with them chickens and Polynesian rats but they were not able to plant and raise any crops due to the hot climate. Thus, the Polynesians of Easter Island were sustained by a diet of taro and sweet potatoes. Many researches have postulated that there were about thirty Polynesian settlers on Easter Island in the period of its discovery by this group of people. The original settlers soon gave birth to newer generations and the Easter Island Polynesian population was encouraged to establish a form of social organization. The extended family served as the basic social unit in the Polynesian society at Easter Island. The extended families cooperatively owned, managed and cultivated the lands. In turn, these families later associated to develop clans and lineages that have their own central frameworks of traditional and religious activities. A chief led each clan and was primarily responsible for facilitating, overseeing and managing activities within his respective clan. The chief was also the central figure in the distribution of food, medicines and other resources allocated to the clan. The formation of clans gave way for competition on community resources and conflicts brought about by struggling to survive with limited resources that led to the decline and total collapse of the Polynesian culture on Easter Island. As the number of people in the island increased, several trees were cut down to serve the agricultural, housing, heating, cooking, and fishing needs of the population. The deforestation also resulted to soil erosion supplemented by the lack animal manure to provide nutrients to the soil. As soil erosion took place, growing of crops was affected and the people were forced to raise more chickens as the primary food source. This trend, however, also aggravated the competition. As chickens gained more usefulness, people resorted to theft. The first stone-built chicken houses came into being as people fought to save their source of daily subsistence. The scarcity of food sources for the almost 7,000 people in the island led to starvation and death (2006).

 

Another contributory factor into the decline of the Polynesian culture in Easter Island is the culture of ritualism brought by the settlers from their homeland. The Polynesians in Easter Island lived in dispersed native huts which were grouped into clusters. They were ritualistic people who constantly held ceremonials activities throughout the year (2006). These people also engaged in a traditional recitation of “rongorongo”. The “rongorongo” ritual constituted one of the most significant social phenomena on pre-missionary Easter Island. The holding and reciting of the “rongorongo” artifact composed an integral part of the island’s most significant community events. It was prominently flourished and ritually sung at any number of formal gatherings. The chanters of the ritual gathered in a circle and performed a chant as a type of cult. The purpose of such performances was evidently to imbue the special occasion with rongorongo's inherent “mana” in order to assist the affected person, involved family, or community in the achievement of one or more specific goals (1197). Most of the island’s communal activities were centered on the large stone statues called “ahu” utilized for activities such as burials, worship and commemoration of deaths of previous clan chiefs. Each clan that celebrated their own rituals had to build and transport their own “ahus”. These statues were produced by manual labor and built from native materials like wood. Sculptors from the community were harnessed to tediously carve the statues while exploiting the tress found in the area. The greatest challenge was seen in the transportation of the “ahus” across the various parts of the island. The community has limited animals which can be utilized for transport. Thus, human strength was utilized. People transported the statues and the “ahus” through rollers made of tree trunks. As the number of people in the island increased, more clans fought for wood sources in building and moving their “ahus”. More trees were cut down to address the increasing needs for more wood and timber to erect the “ahus”. By 1600, Easter Island was almost deforested and construction of the “ahus” was discouraged among the clans. One of the most prominent aspects of Polynesian culture in the island came to an end (2006). Generally, the culture of the Polynesians slowly waned with the colonization of European nations and other powerful states. In the early 1900s, most parts of Polynesia were colonies of other nations. Easter Island was under Chile; Wallis and Fortuna and French Polynesia were occupied by France; Germany had Western Samoa under its power; the United Kingdom colonized Niue, Cook Islands, New Zealand, Tokelau, Tuvalu and Pitcarin; while American Samoa, Hawaii, most of Line Islands and Phoenix Islands were under the United States. The canoes used by the early Polynesians were disregarded as technological innovations in navigation and seafaring were introduced.  The navigational skills of the early Polynesians were ignored in history and as more cultures become interested in Polynesia, the Polynesian identity is slowly losing its essence ( 2006).

           

COLONIZATION AND PRESERVATION OF CULTURE

 

 

            Colonization is the extension of political, social and economic power of one nation in another characterized by the settlement and occupation of the colonizing nation’s population in the colonized country, and the superiority of the mother nation over the native people of the colony. Colonization can be successful if the native culture either becomes integrated into the culture of the colonist or the native culture totally disappears as the colonist’s culture dominates. Colonization can be traced back as far as the tenth century BC when the Phoenicians established trading posts in vast areas of the Mediterranean region  and then implemented sovereignty over the these trading posts. The Greeks also driven by greed for material affluence founded colonies in Italy and Asia Minor and spread the Hellenic culture in those areas. The Greeks tried to make the colonies a replica of the parent country by forcing the people of the colonies to accommodate the Hellenic culture into their own culture. In the Middle Ages, the Portuguese and Spanish explorers dominated the colonization activities in the world. The colonization efforts of Portugal began through the formation of trading ports on the African region as well as the East. The Spanish colonization, on the other hand, was more focused on their American invasion. Portugal and Spain both made use of force and strict governance in their aim to incapacitate their colonies from becoming self-sufficient and thus, make their parent countries more powerful. The British, French and Dutch colonizers were the central figures of colonization in the late years of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These countries utilized chartered companies in their colonization efforts. France was driven by economic reasons in their colonization undertakings and resorted to exploitation of the economic resources of its colonies. The British colonists, on the other hand, imposed restriction on the establishment of a trade monopoly in North America. The British colonists aimed to settle in the Americas, permanently rather than economically exploit the region’s resources. In the late nineteenth century, the Germans and Japanese set out their own colonization activities. Germany was aimed at preserving its industrial empire by embarking on colonial pursuits in countries that can provide them with products closed to what are produced in the parent German nation. Japan, encouraged by Germany’s leadership, also established its colonization path. The colonial move made by these two countries paved the way for World Wars One and Two (2005).

           

 

Colonization, whether in America, Asia or Africa, brought forth a new race of societies. It also further generated a form of economic and political relations which, though unprecedented, represented the consequences of the mutual encounters between civilizations (Ferro 1997, p. 105). Colonization gave way for the domination of one culture over another that would either result to total elimination of the subdued culture or struggles from the colonies’ citizens to preserve their culture in the midst of invasion. While the Polynesian settlers in Easter Island lost their culture, some colonized lands are able to preserve theirs. Since the Easter Island was inhabited, there were no native people who would defend their culture from invasion. On the other hand, other colonized regions like Africa, North America and Asia had native settlers with their own ancestral cultures that gave the primary motivations for the native people to struggle for its preservation. Preservation of culture was primarily done through revolutions and constant effort of some nationalistic people to defend the country and the nation’s identity against the dominating nation. One of them is Mauritius, a volcanic island in the Indian Ocean that experienced colonization from the Arabs, the Dutch, French, and British nations. Most of the original inhabitants of the country were southern Indians and its culture is greatly influenced by these people. Their languages are a combination of French, Creole and English and their cuisine is a rich mixture of Indian, Chinese, Creole and European flavors (Mauritius 2005). The Arabs were the first to discover Mauritius in 975 AD. Between 1507 and 1513, the country was discovered by Portuguese sailors. However, the Portuguese did not pay much interest in the country and later sailed away to India through the Mozambican canal. In 1598, five ships carrying Dutch explorers were trapped by a terrible weather in the port of Texel, Netherlands. When the weather calmed, the ships went on to the direction of the southeast. On September 17, 1598, the Dutch explorers inside the ships gained sight of the island of Mauritius. This moment marked the beginning of the Dutch colonization in the region which lasted from 1638 until 1710. The Dutch colonization and assimilation of culture in Mauritius was unsuccessful due to severe cyclones, droughts, lack of food, presence of different illnesses, and pest infestations in the area. In 1715, the island was abandoned by the Dutch settlers and the French colonists took over. The French established a naval base, a ship-building facility and various structures such as the Government House, Line Barracks and Chateua de Mon Plaisir in Pamplemoussess. The British colonists were the last group to capture Mauritius. Under the British regime, the country experiences major changes in its social and economic spheres. Slavery was abolished and Indo-Mauritians, the natives of the country, regained political power. The harsh weather in the Mauritian region made a big contribution to the unsuccessful efforts of the colonizers. The colonizers were not able to survive the droughts and cyclones in the region. Furthermore, Mauritius is able to achieve a mixture of culture without losing its original culture because of the effort of its people. The formation of the Mouvement  Militant Mauricien or Parti Socialiste Mauricien in the 1970s gave way for an electoral triumph that changed the leadership in the country. The country gained independence and became republic on March 12, 1992 ( 2006).

Another example is North America which has been invaded by European nations starting in the sixteenth century. English, French, Spanish and Dutch navigators tried to invade the eastern part of North America for the purpose of testing their navigational innovations and technology as well as discover foreign lands for their population to settle in. The colonial America was divided into four regions namely New England, Middle Colonies, Chesapeake Bay Colonies and the Lower South. The American culture today is a rich combination of European, African, and Native Americans traditions and ways of life. This combination was a product of the people in colonial America to struggle against total elimination of the American culture and European domination in the area. The European rule in North America ceased primarily due to the American Revolution (2006). The American Revolution was a series of political uprisings against the British power over the North American regions specifically the thirteen British colonies. The Revolution started in 1763 when the American military allied with France to fight against British domination. The American population comprised of about eighty to ninety percent nationalists who were determined to gain independence and form their own republic. The American Revolution was successful in transferring the power of governing North America from the hands of foreigners to the local people (2000).

 

 

 

 

 

San Fermin Festival in Spain

San Fermin Festival in Spain

 

This essay is about the famous festival in Spain known as San Fermin Festival or the running of bulls. The origin of the event was discussed as well as the practices by the townsmen during the event. Moreover, the risks involved in this kind of activity were presented at the last part of the paper.  Cases of accident and death were cited as representation of the imminent danger associated with the festival.

 

Festivals and Fiestas are part of the rich culture of Spain. Every year, about 3,000 fiestas are held all over the country. The 7 days Bull Run though has become the most favorite of the people because of the spectacle and excitement it brings. The famous San Fermin Festival was popularized by Ernest Hemingway in 1591. It is held every month of July and is observed for ten days. This event is celebrated on the day of Saint Fermin, the patron saint of bakers, wine merchants and wine-skin makers.

 

The main attraction of the festival is the running of the bulls in the streets. It is marked by the firing of gun which is done by the Formento Committee’s president from the balcony of the City Hall. Thereafter, a Basque Music band or the txistularis marched the streets with bagpipe players announcing the running of the bulls through the songs. The young men in the city are dressed in their Pamplona costumes as they proceed to the bullring where the fight takes place (1985).

 

This activity though is associated with great risks. Some people who participate are hurt badly and at the worst scenario are killed. While the bull fight is the main event during the festival, there are also other activities held. Other people engage in street dancing, singing and spent the whole day drinking. The festival is made even livelier by the fireworks display, livestock fairs and performances by the musical band.  The San Fermin Festival reflects the rich culture of the people and at the same time serves as a tourist attraction to thousands of visitors of the region. The festival generates its funding from the city government and from the contributions from the residents (1985).

 

The Origin of the Bull Run

 

The tradition of Bull Run that turned into a national and international activity has originated from the transportation of the bulls from the corrals to the bullring. The bulls are herd by the stable hands to the Plaza de Toros. The undertaking was almost like that of herding sheep. The bulls are guided by the stable hands who run behind them with rolled up newspapers. Apparently, young men in the town gather to watch the action behind the herding. Eventually, people started joining to help until everyone was participating. In Pamplona, the Feria del Toro or the Bullfighting Fair was used to be held in the same week as the feast of Saint Fermin. These events are used to be celebrated about two weeks apart until they were combined into a 9 day long event ( 2001).  

 

Rules for the Bull Run

 

Due to the danger that can be caused by the Bull Run, certain rules are implemented in the town of Pamplona for precautionary purposes. Top of this is the exclusion of people less than 18 years old in the run. Those who are drunk or anybody that is deemed to pose danger to other runners are not allowed to remain in the runway. Similarly, it is prohibited to call the bulls or attract them in the way of the runner or inside the running. The runners are also advised to wear comfortable clothes but are not permitted to take photos of the actual run. Because of the unpredictability of the bulls, all doors along the runway are closed to ensure safety (2001).

 

The Running of Bulls

 

The main event of the festival is the running of bulls or the “encierro” as the people in Spain call it. The running of the bulls was brought about by the need to transfer the bull to the bullring from outside the town. The Plaza del Castillo was used to be the place for the bull fights before when the bull ring was yet to be built. Minutes before the actual Bull Run, the runners gather before statue of Saint Fermin and ask for his protection by singing. By the time the clock strikes at 8am, the running of bulls starts at the San Saturnino church. Two rockets are shot announcing the release of the bulls. The first one being was to signify the opening of the gate to the corral while the second one announces that the bulls are already out on the streets. The entire route is about 790 meters long and takes only two minutes. After the run, the bulls are killed during the bullfight by the end of the day (2001)

 

The Dangers of Bullfighting

 

One’s participation to the running and fighting of the bulls entail enormous risks with the mass attendance of runners making it even more dangerous.  Injuries and accidents have become inevitable part of this activity. Enthusiasts run the risk of falling and getting slammed to the walls by the crowd trying to avoid the approaching bulls. The bull fighter who runs with the bull is also a great danger. But amid the danger associated with this, bullfighters consider it a realization of their youthful dreams (2005).     

 

Moreover, the number of runners also poses a great danger. At most instances, injured people are trampled by the other runners. The population of Pamplona is about 200,000 but swells to about two million during the weekends. With the magnitude of the crowd, the spectators are likely to suffer stampedes that may lead to minor injuries and even death. But the threat brought by the bulls is considered graver.

 

Since 1924, thirteen fatalities were recorded due to the festival. The last one being was the death of Matthew Tassio of Glen Ellyn in 1995. Tassio was on a European excursion through Pamplona Spain when he fled the six charging bulls during the San Fermin Festival. Unfortunately for the guy who was 22 years old then, he fell during the rush of the bull runners and unable to get up was pierced by the bull on the back. He died after bleeding profusely and was the first to die in years at the running. The tragic death of Tassio has greatly affected the family. They believed the event was a useless way of life that inflicts so much pain on the people participating in it (2005). 

 

Apparently, everybody in the street is a prospective target for the bulls during the run. As the townsmen are chased in the streets, they carry with them the danger that these creatures might cause. During the festival in 2005, a young British girl sustained injuries that needed surgery after being gored by a bull. Katherine Barron was hurled in the air by the bull while being gored at her buttocks. Because of this incident, the festival was put to a stop after the horrifying experience of the young girl. Her mother denounced the activity and said it should not be allowed to happen (2005).

 

Conclusion

The rich culture of Spain is manifested with the celebration of its numerous festivals. The San Fermin Festival for one that dated back centuries ago reflects how the people are able to preserve their tradition. As most of these fiestas are attributed to patron saints, it is quite an irony that a festival inflicting suffering to the people is tolerated and allowed. Evidently, the Bull Run or fight is a dangerous activity to engage in. The bulls are unpredictable and can attack anybody on the streets. Not only is the event horrifying but it also threatens one’s life. For these reasons, other people perceive it as a useless way of life.

 

However to the townsmen of Pamplona, the festival has become a part of their lives. Amidst the danger to their own lives, they risk joining the event as it is a realization of a youthful dream for them. To the tourists who flood the place during the festival, it is the excitement that draws them to the event. The feeling of excitement that overwhelms the spectators can be attributed with the adrenaline rush caused by the chase and the run.  Ultimately, participating in this festival incorporates entertainment and danger.

 

Moreover, the festival also offers safe and enjoying activities. Those who are not willing to risk hurting themselves in the Bull Run have a great deal of activities to choose from. This gives the people the option to celebrate the festival in a way that they find most enjoyable for them. Indeed, Bull Run participation does not guarantee one’s enjoyment and safety as well.

 

Leadership and Culture at RyanAir & Easyjet

 

Introduction

Amicably, in today’s airline business industry leadership and culture is imperative and crucial in achieving strong business management and operation. There can be looking at the two airlines specifically, Easyjet and Ryan Air as the focus for explanation and discussion points. Ideally, the product services being offered by RyanAir are cheap fare flights that are most likely the same with Easyjet, offering economic flights to frequent passengers. The core discussion can center on these two airlines leadership and culture adhering points as to how each airlines adopt to their leadership styles and what specific culture norm does they utilize in such business. Knowing also if there are issues and challenges from within the process of leadership and culture among Easyjet and RyanAir. Thus, there must be ample awareness of particular theory such as if, one airline imposes motivational leadership or charismatic type and if the culture involves to power distance and others. Then, recommendation should be given duly integrating how Easyjet and RyanAir surges to stay in standards upon their culture and leadership posit respectively.

 

 

Main Body

 

Ryan air

The strategy for this organization is the closest to the original Southwest model overall. Like most European flights it offers a point to-point rather than a hub service, it has absolutely no frills and aims to turn flights around within 25 minutes and routes are consistently the shortest of all the Low Cost Carrier’s. Interestingly, RyanAir is one of the most profitable low cost airlines in the market. (1997; 1998)

RyanAir has transformed itself from an industry minnow into one of Europe's biggest airlines over two decades. However, its obsessive focus on the bottom line has dented its public image. In one infamous incident, it charged a man with cerebral palsy £18 to use a wheelchair, while in another example of cost-cutting zeal, pilots and cabin crew pay for their own training and uniforms ( 2005;  2006). RyanAir's outburst against the aviation establishment came when the airline lashed out at the owner of Stansted airport, its UK base. The company urged thousands of passengers who suffered delays in the half-term rush to send all complaints to the chief executive of BAA, Stansted's parent.

Easy jet

During September of 2004, RyanAir's biggest competitor, Easyjet, announced routes to Ireland for the first time, beginning with the Cork to London Gatwick route until then Easyjet had never competed directly with RyanAir on its home ground. Easyjet adheres strongly to the original low-cost model like Ryan air it does not offer any frills and is also one of the most profitable airlines in Europe. It bypasses the travel agent mode of distribution altogether and offers a point-to-point service. However, unlike RyanAir, Easyjet does travel to selected primary airports ( 1997; 1998) and the customer proposition of Easyjet involves low cost with care and convenience.

 

It is widely known in the airline industry that before RyanAir boss  took over the leadership of  sideline business and set about squeezing out costs and driving up performance, he spent time in the USA studying how the original low-cost airline, Southwest, achieved its stellar performance (2003). himself concedes that many aspects of the model that has made RyanAir such success story in European aviation able to challenge such established carriers such Easyjet in their backyards (2003).

 

 

For instance, both RyanAir and Easyjet:

-          sell tickets directly to the customer

-          price their seats dynamically

-          abandon the “frills” of flying

-          forgo revenue opportunities that would disproportionately raise costs

-          operate only one aircraft type, so that crew and maintenance staff training is simplified, operational flexibility achieved and economies of scale created for both aircraft and parts purchasing

-          offers a single class cabin, with all passengers receiving the same level of service

The two companies have slightly different strategies. Easyjet flies mainly to leading airports while RyanAir uses far more secondary airports to reduce costs. Easyjet places more focus on attracting business travelers as well as leisure travelers, although all its aircraft have single class cabins (2005; 2006).  

There are differences between the two airlines in the way they treat their passengers and employees.

RyanAir pledges simply to get its customers safely from A to B, on time and at the lowest price. The company does indeed have one of the youngest fleets in European aviation, and an impressive record for on time arrivals. Some of its seats are sold for as little as £1 or 1. But if your RyanAir flight is delayed, do not expect free refreshments. RyanAir is similarly tough with its own employees. Their working hours often get close to the legal limits, and their trade unions receive no official recognition.

Easyjet has some of the most productive employees in the business but they also has an impressive record on customer service and employee satisfaction. The airline delivers on basic customer expectations about on time arrivals, baggage delivery, ticketing and check-in with great smile as well as profit. The airline believes that customers deserve respect, dignity and little fun. Surprisingly, though, customers do not come first. That place is reserved for employees, in the belief that you treat your employees the way you want them to treat your customers. Employees are rewarded according to their teamwork, flexibility and willingness to go the extra mile to provide good customer service. These are not merely empty words. Superior performance ratings and the recognition that goes with them must be backed up with actual examples of this behavior in action. But the company is prepared to measure performance broadly, rather than through a narrow set of indicators. Lifelong learning is part of the Easyjet culture. Supervisors are expected to work with each employee on a career-development plan and suitable training. The airline's HR department has key role in communicating brand values to the employees. It emphasizes the importance of employee brand image the image that employee should project good customer service and company's advertising and public relations are directed towards employees as well as customers.

While RyanAir and Easyjet share many common characteristics, then, there are major differences between them, particularly in the areas of customer service and human resource management. There is evidently no single answer for success in the low-cost airline sector and so plenty to challenge the aspiring aviation entrepreneur. These cheap, no frills carriers have revolutionized the airline industry, making European and worldwide travel affordable for all and forcing the established brands to take a long hard look at their operations. There is no doubt that this low-cost model has been a resounding success. However, some airlines have experienced considerably more success than others.

 

Low-cost model

The approach is in line with Michael Porter's theory that there are three major strategies companies can adopt to gain competitive advantage:

Cost leadership where RyanAir and Easyjet seek to be the lowest cost producer by selling standard, mass products

Differentiation where the airlines introduce unique dimension that is considered to be important to the market

Focus this involves targeting certain segment of the market and is rarely adopted by the two airline carriers

It was not until the 1990 that the European airlines started to catch up when Easyjet and RyanAir entered the market, as in Europe alone they have won 10 percent of the market share and 25 percent of the domestic share has been gained in the USA.

Leadership skills

Building innovative product category is generally not possible without the strong commitment of at least one and often several executive champions. Sometimes called corporate sponsors, these experienced managers forge a chain of leadership from idea to market. These are generally members of the company's top management team who believe in the potential of the new technology and/or product and decide to back it. They do not hesitate to leverage their influence within the top management group to support, fund and ultimately guide teams of innovators through the usual corporate decision process and investment hurdles. Although some managers may not immediately think of the creative redesign of one's business model as innovation because it is often not technology driven, it is a powerful way to enhance current business. Many radical business model innovations, like those of low cost airlines RyanAir or easyJet, are built around the smart use of external suppliers/partners to deliver an important component of the service. Although many business model innovations have originated from new entrants to the incumbent industry, it is, nevertheless, desirable innovation effort for established competitors who find themselves caught in a competitive stalemate.

Indeed, putting new system in place in the market requires the vision to imagine and conceive, down to the finest detail, fully operating system. It also demands pragmatic implementation skills to build good structure and coordinate the input of various system component suppliers who are not under the leader's direct control. RyanAir operates single class aircraft layout, thereby maximizing seating capacity and offering cheaper fares. There is also no complimentary food and drink; instead this is sold on board. Flying on Ryanair is about getting safely from A to B anything else simply gets in the way of efficiency. Many airlines have found out the hard way that expanding to become number one is not as important as making profits.

 

 

Whilst some of the bigger airlines are floundering, through combination of entrepreneurship and shrewd business practice their low-cost rivals have stuck to their guns and won. The larger airlines now know that they cannot simply slash prices and hope to be competitive instead they must seek additional business and develop new strategies with which to face the future. Thus, airline culture can influence how RyanAir and Easyjet set up professional business goals as well as perform operations and administer resources to achieve them. There can be ideal organizational culture applied in both of the airlines as there affects the way in which business team make decisions with way leaders of the business perceive, feel and act ( 1989; 1990) As leadership and culture connects in particular areas such as RyanAir performance and or Easyjet’s customer commitment. RyanAir and Easyjet cultures are networked at the same time fragmented and there is the presence of both innovative stances. For example, the existence of high power distance values and bureaucratic culture among these two airlines can possibly be well acknowledged (2001; 1985) as the relative high power distance preference and values can make significant influence on the leadership assimilation through business culture. According to  (1980), in essence to RyanAir and Easyjet, the culture values of strong business participation in such technology advances can be prevalent along with delegation and decentralization of decision making and control in its strategic assumptions for success in management handling.

Culture and leadership styles

Leadership contributes significantly in the success and failure of both RyanAir and Easyjet as there can be relationships of leadership style, motivation and employee performance within these two airlines (1996; , 1993). Transformational leadership attributes, such as empowerment and clear vision, are often seen as important elements for employee job satisfaction and commitment (1994). This type of leadership style is often associated with flatter airline structure and low power distance as in western firms (2001; 1997). RyanAir leadership tends to be based on position, authority and seniority as commitment is highly associated with loyalty and as far as transformational leadership is concerned,  ( 1985) has suggested that transformational qualities lead to performance beyond expectations in Easyjet’s operation  settings  along with measures of travel effectiveness ( 1996;  2001). Thus, leadership and culture have effect on important airline business outcomes characterizing how RyanAir and Easyjet adopted to every situation in such issues as with combined effect of leadership and culture on business operation performance.

Conclusion/Recommendation

Therefore, leadership and culture are essential factors in business such as those that applies to low cost airliners and is perhaps implies such ironic shifts of ground breaking recognition such as the airline carriers, RyanAir and Easyjet should utilize corporate branding strategies labeled employee branding to position powerfully in their customers consciousness.

In recommendation, for RyanAir:

The need to enhance and focus more on leadership vision reflected in useful mission and placing culture values in proper phasing to such customer service at the heart of their business

There must be transformational yet charismatic touch as putting employees first on shape and serve customers with ample quality of service

The culture must exercise the power of equality in performance and to adapt to business changes if deemed necessary

In recommendation, for Easyjet: 

To have a desired brand image of the airline as articulated to employees and staff in number of ways every day

The consideration of alignment for realizing better values as emanating from such customer systems

There requires to have formal leadership resources as there is ample need for communication that relates to HR department and such PR pattern

Focusing on creating and maintaining desirable culture that supports Easyjet in full range as there can be leadership control for keeping customer feedback in positive notion

 

 

 

 

SOCIOLOGY OF CULTURES

Online Communication

Introduction

According to  internet links millions of people in new spaces that are changing the way we think and the way we form our communities. We are moving form a ‘modernist culture of calculation toward a postmodernist culture of simulation. Life on the screen permits us to ‘project ourselves into our own dramas, dramas in which we are producer, director, and star’. Computer screen are the new location for our fantasies, both erotic and intellectual. We use life on computer screens to become comfortable with new ways of thinking about evolution, relationships, sexuality, politics, and identity ( 2000, ). ’s metaphor of ‘windows’ have become powerful for thinking about the self as a multiple, distributed system. Windows according to  allow us to cycle through cyberspace and real life, repeatedly. Windows allow us to be in several contexts at the same time. The self is no longer simply playing different roles in different settings at different times. The life practice of windows is that of a decentered self that exists in many world, that plays many roles at the same time. Real life can now be considered as ‘just one more window’ ( 2000, ).

 

Forming New Selves Online

            According to  (1995) in online communication, individuals become authors not only of text but themselves, constructing new selves through social interaction (). So how do people form new selves online? What are the reasons why people take on different roles and identities online? It has been argued that everyday life was like a performance and that people’s behaviors and attitudes could be explained in terms of theatrical metaphor. People adopt particular roles when they are in public view by putting on a face ( 1959 cited in  and  2005, ).  (1995) asserts that computer enables users to explore multiple roles. She says, in computer mediated worlds the self is multiple, fluid and constituted in interaction with machine connections; it is transformed by language (cited in  and  2005, ). People engage in role playing because it lets them experience an identity they could not successfully portray in real life. A benefit of such role-playing is that individuals can gain new perspective on their world and their place in it. Borrowing form anthropology,  uses the term ‘depaysement’ to describe the experience of seeing the familiar through unfamiliar eyes. In interviews with people who assumed identities markedly unlike their own for their online personas, most notably those who changed their genders,  found that the experience of living a life unlike their own opened them up to the struggles and pleasures that come along with living another gender, race, class or other distinction ( and  2005).

            Another reason why people adopt different roles online is the increased control people experience over their online identities. In real life, one can adopt a limited number of roles, given that one’s gender, race, age, accent, and other nonverbal determinants influence people’s perceptions of how well one functions in a given role. A person can more readily adopt and enacts a change in his gender, race or any other characteristics he chooses than in real life. In whatever identity he selects, he can exert greater control over his identity in the online environment than in face-to-face interaction. in face-to-face interactions, we communicate not only through our words but also through our appearance. For example, in real life, someone might decide to discount your opinion because of your age, because he or she perceives that you are too young or too old to know much about a topic. In online forums, what people know about others is based on the disclosure of information that one wishes others to know ( 1996 cited in  and  2005).

 

Self-Presentation: Anonymity, Pseudonymity, and Identity

            When people enter chat rooms, contribute to bulletin boards, or participate in MUDs (Multi-User Dungeon), they can exercise control over elements of their self-presentation. In choosing names, signature files or personal descriptions, they make conscious decisions about how they wish to be perceived by others. The variety of possible selves one might choose to present could be considered along a range of identification ( 1999 cited in  and  2005). At one end of this continuum would be the nearly emptied state of anonymity. Along the continuum would be differing levels of an invented self-representing pseudonymity. At the opposite end, then, would be the identity presented in real life or as close one could get it through the limited stimuli of mediating technologies.

• Anonymity – the state of communicating where the identity of the communicator is not readily apparent
• Pseudonymity – the state of communicating where the identity is hidden under a ‘pseudonym’ from the Latin words for ‘false’ and ‘name’.

 

            According to  (2000) in the MUDs, virtual characters interact with each other. They can converse with one another; they can exchange gestures, express emotions, win and lose virtual money, and rise and fall in social status. Virtual characters also die. The anonymity of MUDs gives people the chance to express multiple and often unexplored aspects of the self, to play with their identities and to try out new ones. MUDS make possible the creation of an identity so fluid and multiple that it strains the limits of the concept.

 

Online Communication: The Ego Ideal

Computer-mediated-communication (CMC) contexts, like no other person-to-person media before them, offer communicators the ability to control their personal identities. The computer is an evocative object, an object to think with. Computers show us how multifaceted our lives are. It has been argued that a person who can move form one aspect or self to another and do so with an understanding of the process is a more healthy conception of who we are. Computers, with the ability to multitask various jobs simultaneously, serve as a metaphor for our own lives in which we are called on to fill more than one role, oftentimes simultaneously. The computer’s communication applications, are just some that allow us to practice, to explore and ultimately reflect on the nature of who we are in terms of not just one self, but our many selves ( and  2005).

’s psychoanalytic model suggests that the human mind is made up of three components. These are the id, ego and super ego. The first part of the mind is the id. The Id functions in the irrational and emotional part of the mind. According to , the id is the only component of personality that is present at birth. The id is entirely unconscious and represents ‘the dark, inaccessible part of our personality, a chaos, a cauldron full of seating excitations’ ( 1933 cited in  2003, ). The id transforms biological needs into psychological tension (drives). Its only goal is to gain pleasure by reducing these drives. The id is totally illogical and amoral; it has no conception of reality or self-preservation. The id is like an impulsive child that wants pleasure right away, so it demands an immediate substitute if its initial choice is frustrated. The id is irrational, impulsive and image producing. It only wants to fulfill its needs and wants. As human beings developed they start to differentiate between self and not self. The ego is formed out of the id. The images produced by the id cannot reduce drives or satisfy biological needs, since these images are only mental pictures of what the infant wants. The maturing child makes an important discovery; the environment contains objects that can satisfy the demands of the id. Mental representations of these objects are incorporated in the ego, and the growth of the ego increases the child’s capacity to deal with reality. The ego is the only component of personality that can interact with the environment. It is logical and rational, and forms realistic plans of action designed to satisfy the needs of the id. The super ego is formed out of the ego. The super ego is a special part of the ego that observes and sits in judgment above the rest. The superego is partly conscious and partly unconscious. The superego includes two components: the conscience punishes illicit thoughts and actions, and the ego ideal rewards desirable behavior. Much of the super ego lies in the unconscious, where it is intimately related to the id. It condemns the id’s illicit impulses as severely as actual misdeed, but can directly influence only the ego. Therefore, both forbidden impulses and unacceptable behaviors cause tension to be generated between the superego and the ego, and this is experienced by the ego as guilt or moral anxiety ( 2003).

 

In ’ s work the concept of identification is very important. According to  the primitive ego seeks to satisfy its own wishes, desires and drives taking itself as its own love-object. This process is called ‘primary narcissism’. As humans progress they realize that their wishes, desires and drives can be satisfied by others in the external world. This process is called ‘secondary narcissism’. However, because of external pressures, these early forms of narcissism must be given up. From then on, one seeks to recover narcissism in the form of ego ideal. The ego ideal represents the desire for the wholeness and perfection that was enjoyed in infancy.

The idealized image is a false conception of one’s virtues and assets developed as a defence against the demands of the ego ideal. The ideal image is the irrationally imagined unconscious image of oneself as he or she should be according to the dictates of ‘neurotic pride’. It is characterized by the glorified, aggrandized, and perfected qualities derived from a person’s previous fantasies, experiences, needs, and capacities ( 2004).  (1987) argued that the ideal image or the ideal self is composed of attributes that an individual would like to possess; it is one of the motivating guides for behavior. According to Higgins when there are discrepancies between the one’s actual self and these important self-guides, an individual will be motivated to reduce them. Thus an individual will be motivated to try to make these ideal attributes a reality.

In relation to the internet, some aspects of the ego ideal (ideal self) that the person constructed can be presented and acted out as though it has been attained. The physical environment may restrict the ego ideal from being achieved. Similarly, the society, culture and group that affirm an individual’s identity may obstruct him from forming new identifications. According to  (1997) in MUDs and other online role-playing games players create a character or multiple characters that are closer to embodying aspects of themselves that they hate or perhaps have not ever consciously confronted before. Online communication and MUDs offer mediums for projecting both conscious and unconscious aspects of the self. Virtual worlds provide environments for experiences that may be hard to come by in the real. Online communications offer spaces and environments where the ego ideals of a person can be obtained.

 

The Virtual Self and New Self

            People can choose to be anonymous in online communities and interactions. Because of this anonymity allows people to express multiple and often unexplored aspects of the self. People can play with their identities and try out new ones. In virtual communities, people can take on different personae. Creating a virtual self gives a person an opportunity for self-expression. In online encounters, physical personhood is being substituted by a virtual self. This self-fluidity of selfhood allows anyone to be anything since one’s physical presence is not required for the Internet encounter. Individuals are represented by their virtual selves and the line between reality and fiction is blurred.

            Perhaps people who repressed some aspects of their identities find freedom on the internet. I think that virtual self is somewhat similar to ‘hidden identity’. According to  and  (1985), identities are an important source of motivation. When important aspects of identity go unexpressed for fear that negative consequences might result as in the case of socially sanctioned or stigmatized identities an individual becomes highly motivated to seek out role relationships in which these aspects can play an accepted part (cited in  and  1999). People have a need to present their inner self to the outside world to have others know them as they know themselves ( and  1998). When one cannot do this in one’s current relationships, one is likely to be motivated to establish new ones in which those needs and preferences can be fulfilled through expression of the new aspect of self.  (1995) noted that the Internet offers an alternative playground ripe for testing the waters of such unexpressed identity and personality aspects. Identity can be constructed and reconstructed in numerous ways on the internet with no ‘fallout’ for the individual (cited in  and  1999).

I believe that online communication does not allow a new self to emerge. Rather, it allows us to see and explore some aspects of our self that we sometimes overlook. It offers a medium for us to project both conscious and unconscious aspects of ourselves. According to  (1997) virtual communities such as MUDs are the most dramatic example of the way the culture of simulation challenges traditional notions of human identity. They make possible the construction of an identity that is so fluid and multiple that it strains the very limits of the notion. When we live through our electronic self-representations we have unlimited possibilities to be many. People become masters of self-presentation and self-creation. MUDs are spaces for thinking through and working through issues of personal identity.

 

Internet and Social Life

People are using internet to meet important social and psychological needs. Interpersonal communication is the number one use of the internet at home ( 1998 cited in  and  1999). One of the most basic of these interpersonal needs is to ‘belong’, to be a member of a group of people with similar interest and goals. Another basic need is to have positive feelings about oneself, that is self-esteem and a sense of self worth.

We use name both online and offline. Manes constitute an important ‘identity attachment’ on which we hang our knowledge by reference to the name. Offline, we use names to connect people’s appearances to their names. Online, where these visual cues are unavailable to use, names assume even greater significance. Online interaction, by definition is anonymous and disconnected form offline identity. Majority of correspondents in cyberspace have no bodies, no faces no histories beyond what they may choose to reveal ( 1997 cited in  2002). In online interactions, allow communicators to be whoever they want to be. You are known only by the name you give your character.

            However, participants in online communities and groups such as MUDs develop close, long-term relationships with each other. Thus, the interaction between these people becomes not entirely anonymous and pseudonymous. People on MUDs, for example know a good deal about each other’s offline lives and identities. While online interactions can be considered as not anonymous, there is a great possibility for identity ambiguity. Online names can be changed much more easily than offline faces. The possibilities for identity masquerade, ambiguity, deception, and confusion makes social interaction difficult since the user cannot tell who is he talking to. People also cannot be sure that the identity characteristics presented online match the participants offline identity. Relationships online can be complicated by these possibilities of identity ambiguity. Maintaining group boundaries involves identifying group members and outsiders. Difficulties in such identification make groups vulnerable online. On a more personal level, forming close relationships usually involves disclosure of intimate information. While some people may be able to include detailed fictional information in the maintenance of a fictional character, few people can successfully carry off a long–term, detailed masquerade. Further, people expect consistency of identity in others and may need such consistency in order to build trust. Thus, people seeking to form and maintain group and personal relationships online must find ways to deal with the potential for deception and ambiguity ( 2002).

             (2002) examined the aspects of social life influenced by the internet in order to address the usual prejudices against the internet. His study revealed that there are no long-term negative effects due to the internet communication. He found out that the internet that young people use the internet like the telephone rather than as an opportunity to try different personalities and identities. According to  people with already developed social skills benefit more from internet interaction. Internet access enhances already existing skills. Regarding the socially anxious and the less socially skilled who find face-to-face interaction more intimidating, it has been found out that the internet provides compensatory avenues. According to  and  (1995) socially anxious individuals are more likely to turn to the internet to meet their need for close relationships because they do not have this need met in face-to-face environment.

 

 

 

 

Multiple Self: Is Virtual Self new or something that we already know?

            Technological changes, along with resulting or concomitant changes in social arrangements, are producing increasingly fractured and multiple selves ( 1991;  1985;  1995;  1995 cited in  2002). This argument is countered by postmodern theorist of identity who argue that identities have always been contingent, performed and multiple and that only our perceptions and understandings of identity are changing ( 1990;  1989;  1992 cited in  2002). This latter argument also emphasizes the political nature of identity, including its exclusionary and normative aspects. According to  (2002) online identity practices demonstrate how particular race, gender, and class identities wield greater power and receive more benefits than others. From the arguments presented, I think that the conception of ‘virtual self’ is something that we already know. According to postmodern theorists of identity, we all have multiple identities. Our identities are affected by our changing beliefs and perceptions. In our lives, we have to take on different roles and identities. When we enter a chat room or participate in online games, we use our virtual self, an expansion of our real self.

 

Conclusion

            Based on the discussion above, I can conclude that the internet and online communication does not produce a ‘new self’ in its users. Rather, it gives us opportunities to discover other aspects of our self and discover our true self. Online communications allow us to realize our ego ideal. Through the internet, we expose our other selves. Selves that we hide from our physical environment for various reasons. The internet offers new spaces, new environments, new cultures and new societies wherein boundaries are virtually non-existent. Everyone can put on different personae. The internet offers freedom; freedom to express our selves, our desires, our wants and our needs without the restriction of age, social status, race, gender etc.

 

 

References

 

CULTURE

Introduction

Cultures may be described in terms of historically derived patterns and socially valued habits for which data may be found in all human activities and functions including political institutions and rules of law, constructions and influences of the fine arts, religious rites and dogmas and all forms of intellectual enquiry and speculation. Political problems, enlarged from national to world dimensions, involve these same data. The establishment of peace and security is a problem, not merely of bolstering the status quo and elaborating measures calculated to avoid armed hostilities, but of establishing an order extended to all peoples and fitted to their just expectations ( 1971).

 

A peaceful order must be adjusted to their needs and resources, and it must reflect and in turn influence their character, that is, their habitual attitudes and understandings. The establishment of such world order depends on using available knowledge and providing for its increase and dissemination, and on broadening the applications of wisdom. The cultural heritage, finally, is determined in patterns which have resulted from innovations in action, thought, or expression of individual human beings engaged in the solution of social, economic, religious, aesthetic, ethical, philosophic or scientific problems. The conscious critical examination of these activities and their clarification relative to the ends they serve depends, not on social conditions from which they arose or on political power and controls by which their external manifestations might be inhibited or advanced, but on standards of aesthetic, ethical and scientific judgment (1971).

The characteristics of cultures may be discerned, in the first place, in the social aspects of human action and co-operation in the patterns, recognizable as forms of conduct and transmissible from generation to generation, which appear in the behavior of men and the determination of their functions. Forms of group behavior are, however distinguishable from the cultures of which they are signs, and anthropologists sometimes differentiate society, in the sense of a group of people who have learned to live together, from culture, in the sense of the distinctive ways of life of such a group of people.  The distribution of functions and the division of labor required for the production and exchange of goods and for the common life constitute the organization of societies, while the customs and beliefs which hold societies together and enable them to survive are expressions of their cultures (1971).

The distinction is seen in its limiting case in sub-human societies, like those of the social insects, which are cultureless, whereas every human society is possessed of a characteristic culture. Every culture presupposes a society, but the converse of this formula is not true. Cultures may therefore be studied in the conduct of peoples and in the cumulative traditions of the transmission of patterns of conduct with their lags, interruptions, and intrusions of novelty. So viewed, cultures are the material traces of ideas and ideals in the habits of men. An analysis of the actions, productions and convictions by which men adjusted themselves to the conditions in which they found themselves can supply information, not about the circumstance and materials to which they were applied, but about the group ( 1971).

Cultures are dependent on man's capacity for conceptual thought and articulate speech. Primitive cultures no less than technologically advanced civilizations are competent bodies of beliefs and interrelated devices for the communication of meanings adapted to the ends of the society or derived from traditions which were once adapted, or seemed to be adapted, to those ends. They are tested, when questions or conflicts arise, by the consequences to which they have been related and for which they should account, against rival meanings and beliefs suggested by the internal movements and the external contacts of the culture ( 1971). Through studying the culture of Western and Asian countries a better comparison and understanding of their leadership styles can be made. Culture plays a big part on how people, societies and nations act. Through studying the culture of countries a better understanding of why they societies act in such way.

 

Cultural Convergence and Divergence

            Although both the cultural convergence and divergence have long been recognized, their relationship and compatibility have not been realized until recently. The changing times have much to contribute to this realization. Based from various authors ( and , 1996; , 1996), cultural convergence and divergence are no longer considered as options for most industries. Various driving forces such as the increasing popularity and utilization of technology, worsening globalization and the constant transformation of the economic landscape are among those that encourage organizations to adapt to change. Nowadays, firms tend to discard old strategies such as decreasing costs, stiff organizational hierarchies and administrative management styles. Currently, enhancing customer value, adopting the latest innovation and developing flexibility are the latest focus of the industries. At this time, when competition is very strict and change occurs rapidly, firms try to come up with new and effective practices that their systems can adopt and implement. Since competition, technological influence or increasing customer demands were not as significant before, the convergence and divergence of culture were not realized earlier.

            Aside from these emerging business challenges, cultural convergence and divergence can be attributed to the transition of the objectives and purpose of most industries. In order to survive and succeed in the business world, most organizations are focused on improving their performance levels. This then encompasses central issues of concern (, 2000):

• There is a continuous change among business paradigms along with the necessary success factors among organizations as required by the market forces and groups of stakeholders.
• Basically, entry norms to new competitive circumstances have become tougher and tighter as more pressure is required to sustain or overcome them.
• Organizations whose ambitions and standards are high, recognize the vitality of become their industrial sector’s first mover or perhaps at least a principal innovator.
• The more the management becomes an expert in responding to business challenges, the gap between cultural convergence and divergence lessens.

 

Case Study

Dyson is one of the best-known companies in UK that manufactures vacuum cleaners and washing machines. Dyson continually aims to build its brands by listening to its customers and identifies the various stages in the marketing process. The cultural convergence strategy of Dyson to China is integrating the market identifying customer needs and requirements and meeting these needs in a better way than competitors. In this way a company creates loyal customers. Dyson has the power to expand its market in China as the number of target customers is increasing and always growing with positive buying decisions of such products as Dyson’s establishes a prominent position in the minds of customers around the globe.

Cultural convergence is constantly transforming into a priority for organizations of every magnitude and the strategy to improve functions beyond domestic territories is not without problems players who have successfully entered foreign markets. Cultural convergence is a strategy that can help reduce these competitive problems by widening the probable sets of consumers, organizations also widen their profitable sources. Cultural convergence can enhance a company's long-term survival as well (, 2001, ). Companies that expand into international markets lessen their dependence on a single country's economy (, 1998, ). There is no particular cultural convergence policy that is excellent at all types of settings, organizations that enhance excellent strategies tend to implement the following excellent practices.

In discussion, the skills in cultural convergence are crucial factors for Dyson’s international expansion in China. In a way it provides the most effective results. For example, TV advertising makes people aware of a food item and press advertising provides more detail as supported by in store promotions to get people to try the product and a collectable promotional device to encourage them to keep buying the item. A thorough understanding of what the brand represents is the key to a consistent message as the more Dyson knows about the Chinese people it is serving the more it is able to communicate messages which appeal to them. In terms of market entry and development, the fact that Dyson branches in the UK are a wholly owned subsidiary of the company in order to control quality, ( and , 1986) Dyson in the UK initially developed the market through joint ventures with suppliers and through opening its own outlets and only when quality and reputation were established, did it begin to grant local franchises to expand in the international market and internationally, Dyson is as big as some countries and is growing at a phenomenal rate. ( and , 1986, )

The cultural convergence strategy of Dyson is to serve customers where they live, shop and play. Dyson's cultural convergence is to focus on high-profile CBD locations in new markets that it penetrates. ( and , 1986, ) The business is doing well and in many cases exceeds initial expectations in terms of turnover and profitability. Dyson has no plans to diversify its range of vacuum cleaners and restaurants being the most recognized brand in the world has its advantages as the group's marketing strategy is to leverage the name in China for its worth. ( and , 1986, ) Dyson obtains much of its required funding from multinational and local banks. The corporate policy is to finance themselves in the currency in which they sell their hamburgers whenever possible helping franchisees obtain funding. Dyson's largest markets and the market is growing rapidly and still protects itself by monitoring of its international markets and hedging where appropriate in financing market entries strategies is one challenge through identifying market opportunities, packaging, price points and distribution channels. (, 2002, )

Dyson has adept menu selections to local tastes and import nearly its goods, until it can build supply chains locally. (, 2002, ) Some companies find that selling single-serving sizes works well in countries with low per-capita incomes. As faced with increasingly intense competition in the United Kingdom, Dyson is increasingly relying on its international operations for the majority of its profits and the bulk of its new-store openings in China. Dyson represents an open field compared with the United Kingdom and after establishing a presence in many international markets including a foothold in places like China, where it sells vacuum cleaners and washing machines, Dyson has taken the lead from its global competition. (,  and , 1996, )

The process of penetrating and developing an international market like China through cultural convergence is a difficult one, which Dyson may identify as an Achilles’ heel in their global capabilities. In fundamental terms, entering a new country-market through cultural convergence is like a start-up situation, with no sales, no marketing infrastructure in place and little or no knowledge of the market. Despite this, Dyson usually treats the situation as if it were an extension of their business, a source of incremental revenues for existing products and services. The company can pursue such new business opportunity with a focus on minimizing risk and investment advocated for genuine start-up situations. ( and , 1999, ) Next, from a cultural convergence perspective, as Dyson may possibly break the founding principle of cultural convergence that they should start by analyzing the market and only then, decide on its offer in terms of products, services and marketing programs and see international markets as opportunities to increase sales of existing products and that Dyson can better adopt a sales push rather than a market-driven approach. The company enters new country-markets through the indirect channel of a local independent distributor. Few other multinationals will not know their costs as well as their operating profitability in the markets, and it is a fact that Dyson is also altering the way they enter and penetrate new international markets. The mixed results as remain a challenging phase of internationalization. ( and , 1999, )

In situations in which Dyson’s cultural convergence strategy for entering China is adopted and rapid expansion of the business is a priority, they are highly suitable, and it is clear that the cultural convergence strategy is interrelated as expansion ways can run counter in entering the market with essential experience in the demonstration of emerging markets. ( and , 1986, ) Since, Dyson cannot export its product to all markets of China, it can choose among different modes of operation in each market, some of which involve a higher degree of commitment of resources than others. In particular, it can open a subsidiary that franchises directly or enter into a joint venture with a local partner in China as well as establish a master franchising arrangement whereby the master franchisee owns and operates the outlets in his territory or finds franchisees to do the same. The level of investment that Dyson commits to these markets differs across these different governance modes as Dyson exerts significant control over the number of outlets and the growth in the number of outlets in each market in China. Thus, cultural convergence implies that familiarity will be the driving factor in determining where Dyson will expand abroad, and it is useful to discuss further the factors the economic theory which suggests a firm’s decision to expand abroad. Dyson may not fully internalize the cost of expansion in China in a master franchise context, but such a contract usually stipulates a development schedule that states the number of outlets to be opened at different points in time. Dyson can still control the expansion path in the Chinese markets. ( and , 1986, )

Moreover, Dyson potentially internalizes the cost of rapid development in the master franchise contexts as much as they do under joint venture or even direct franchising ( and , 1987, ) In that sense, Dyson can still control the expansion path in such markets like China. Moreover, as tight development schedules impose higher costs on the master franchisee, they will not be willing to pay as much for a contract that requires them to expand very rapidly relative to one where they can expand more slowly. In conclusion, the notion that Dyson expanded in China because it had saturated its home market is true. Instead, consistent with traditional profit maximization arguments for a firm with market power that faces numerous market opportunities and limited resources that it allocated resources to achieve growth across many highly desirable markets as it enters those markets with the most promising culture positively related to a country’s market potential, there are factors that affect entry and expansion differently. Therefore, it is worthwhile considering how service chains expand abroad and going beyond just entry to gain further insights in the process and hurdles involved in international market expansion respectively (, 1999, ).

 

 

 

 

 

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

Dyson should not adhere to some mismatch between cultural convergence and divergence. This stems from a failure to follow in international operations the marketing strategy process that is probably established in the core domestic business. The company has direct participation in the market and through a controlled cultural convergence strategy they have ample control over strategic marketing and its success to think thoroughly about how the business will develop over several years in China. While it is true that distinctive characteristics of cultural convergence demand a different approach to marketing this is not a reason for Dyson’s standards in marketing management to be relaxed. In strengthening international expansion strategy of Dyson in the Chinese market it is crucial to examine some unique cultural convergence and divergence challenges and discuss phases of the process of market entry and development, including the following: (, 1995, )

Ø      The objectives of market entry in China, which will have implications for the cultural convergence strategy and organization adopted

Ø      The choice of market entry mode like Dyson’s form of marketing organization through which the company participates in the market. Particular attention will be paid to the low-intensity modes of cultural convergence as favored in market entry situations (, 1997, )

Ø      The cultural convergence strategy in China, with a particular focus on the lessons learned from the strategies of other established multinationals in emerging markets and framework for evolution of international marketing strategy

The distribution unit in the country-market as a wholly-owned subsidiary, has to manage a strategy for growth and be judged on organizational criteria including feasibility, level of desired risk, supportability and control issues with the implementation of preexisting marketing strategies such as communication platforms and target customer selection. (, 1995, ) Indeed, it is usually impossible to separate the process of market development from the process of organizational development. It is possible to identify commonalities across companies in this process of cultural convergence and so to describe the usual evolution of international marketing strategy. ( and , 2001, ) The framework has to begin by recognizing that different objectives for market entry may produce quite different outcomes in terms of entry mode and marketing strategy. Dyson enters the Chinese markets in following standard cultural convergence strategy because of its increasing commitment pattern of market penetration, in which market entry is via independent partner to a directly controlled subsidiary of building a business in the country-market as quickly as possible but nevertheless with a degree of patience produced by the initial desire to minimize risk and by the need to learn about China and market from a low base of knowledge. ( and , 2001, )

The cultural convergence decision relevant for Dyson should consider serving the Chinese market through export agents is attractive in that it offers both low financial risk and access to substantial local operating knowledge. It is particularly suitable for the company to acquire better experience adopting international operating functions as the level of control is likely to be quite high, given that cultural convergence has occurred in the context of a preexisting inter-organizational relationship and establish a service operation for the customer’s local operations (, 2002, ).

One drawback of cultural convergence in China is the difficulty of adapting the new culture to local market tastes even experienced corporations as Dyson which have managed to thrive on trade-off and taken several decades and some false starts to get to this point of advanced practice. Moreover, cultural convergence is a common method of international market entry for Dyson with a distinctive asset, which is a key differentiating element in their marketing offer. ( and , 2004) Thus, cultural convergence is a practice not restricted to international markets licensing its products to manufacturers and marketers while it focuses its own efforts on its core competencies of food production and distribution and offers an effective way of entering foreign markets because it can offer low-intensity mode of market participation and adaptation of product to local markets.

 

 

 

 

CONCLUSION

The fundamental reason of Dyson for entering the Chinese market has to be potential demand but it is common to observe factors driving investment and performance measurement decisions like cultural convergence as it will change the calculus of the market entry mode decision. Thus, cultural convergence can help the company achieve greater economies of scale as the company may seek to exploit a distinctive and differentiating asset with adaptation to local markets, which would undermine scale economies from replication of the winning model (, 2003, ). Dyson must retain some control, so it may enter markets with relatively high-intensity modes as either in cultural convergence and divergence models suited for the rapid replication of businesses through expansion of units as centered on protected assets as expansion operations will consist of a patchwork of country-market operations that are pursuing different objectives at anytime. It is better that Dyson would adopt different cultural convergence strategies for different markets and have a template that is followed in every market as starts with market entry and a distribution channel respectively. However, since Dyson will have involvement in elements of the cultural convergence plan, including how much to spend on the cultural convergence, distribution arrangements and service standards, it should be noted that effective control over cultural convergence is impossible without timely and accurate market information of market participation, involving investments in local executives, distribution and marketing programs. (, 2001,  )

REFERENCES

 

Immigrant Culture

Introduction

Migrating already started in the ancient times were humans cross the different continents in search for food and shelter. Today, people still choose to move for the same and somehow new reasons such as job relocation, fostering education, and searching for a good home. These new reasons are considered as solution for the overpopulation in one certain area. However, there are many things to be considered before deciding to be called as “immigrant” and these involves the adjustment in terms of culture and fighting culture shock.

Culture

            The differences of people in education, social standing, religion, personality, faith, experiences, personalities, and a myriad of other factors will affect human behavior and culture. ¹ Thus, the differences of the culture and ideology reflects in their traditional customs and ways.

            And because of the differences, the migrating group or person should learn to understand the other cultures. There are many other reasons aside from being fascinated on how the people think, speak, act, evaluate, and communicate. Understanding the culture differences can help them in doing their business, being a diplomat, having social life or school affiliations, and avoiding the humiliation or offending the others in their religion.²

Culture Differences between the US and Haiti

            There are series of differences between the US and Haiti in terms of the culture. Understanding these differences can make a person adjust to the new environment.

At first is the Haiti’s culture which encompasses a variety of traditions while, the United States culture is through the development of European ideals, British, and domestic origin.

Festivals - The most festive time of the year in Haiti is where the cities are filled with music, parade floats and people dancing and singing in the streets. Meanwhile, in US, they celebrate their festivals through the National Holidays together with a happy bearing. But unlike in Haiti, US have a numerous holidays to be celebrated.

Religion/Faith – Both the US and Haiti are the home for different religions and beliefs. The religions are composed of Christians, Roman Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and others. Cuisine – the taste buds of Haitian are made-up of African, Taino, and European delicacies. And their food is duly under the process of marinating. Meanwhile, in the US, they use wheat is the primary cereal grain.

Culture Shock

            Every person who enters in the new world that is foreign to her thus, the next step is adjustment that should be set in motion. Immigrants usually experience this kind of feeling unless they are capable in speaking their foreign language. Language is one of the access to understand their differences. There is nothing as frustrating as trying to speak English in the U.S.A., particularly when you know that the word you think you are pronouncing is not being understood by the other person.³

            Eventually, the culture shock is one of the reasons why the immigrant unaware offended or scorned the natural inhabitants of the land.

            The culture shock in Haiti as they move to United States has to do with basic survival. Life in Haiti struggles for daily food, potable water, hunting for the basic health care to stay alive, and finding a job is a problem. On the other hand, the ones who are in the middle and upper class almost take things for granted. The struggles are focused on the growth, security, personal pleasure, entertainment, and enrichment.⁴

            The reasons of moving needed to be weigh much and most of it are concerned about school related issues as safety in academic programs.⁵ The immigrants focuses in the main reasons of their migration, for this is their motivation to stay in their decision to move.

Conclusions

            There are many issues concerning with the idea of moving from another neighborhood to the other. But the problem in local migration is different in moving in the other country. A good research in that country is an advantage in being visible in the crowd. The problems with the adjusting stage are not that hard if the immigrant is knowledgeable in speaking with them. The good representation of the personality is also important in showing the immigrant’s own perspective.

            Aside from being in the society which is one of the main problems, the immigrant must also need to find other area of expertise which will make him/her mix with the other people and nationality. The immigrant should not suffer from discrimination if they don’t discriminate the other group.

 

 

 

 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

CULTURE, FAMILY STRUCTURE AND GENDER RULES IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

 

 

            The Dominican Republic neighbors Haiti on the Hispaniola Island in the Caribbean. It is the second largest Spanish-speaking country among the four largest Caribbean islands with Jamaica, Cuba and Puerto Rico as the other three (, 1999, ).   Roman Catholicism, the official religion, and the different religious practices imbedded in this faith, dictate the uniqueness and national identity of the Dominican Republic. Many manifestations of Dominican culture, norms and customs can be derived from religious beliefs. The Catholic Church is also one of the primary ways by which families sustain the close relationships that bind them. Catholic traditions like a child's baptism, funerals and weddings affirm two occurrences - a celebration that brings family members together, and the establishment and acceptance of the family’s new relationships with the godparents of the christened child or in-laws of the newly wed (, 1999, ).

             (1989) states that the family is the basic social unit in the Dominican culture that shapes the social identity of the people. It is considered as a safe haven in the midst of political chaos and economic burdens. Dominicans value close ties with family or kin which makes family loyalty an important virtue. Families who have equal resources share what they have and constantly cooperate with one another on household or social matters. In the case of less affluent families, those members who enjoy a higher degree of economic stability attempt to control the demands made by the others. Nevertheless, generosity is revered and members of the family highly appreciate mutual exchange of favors. The Dominican culture sanctions civil weddings, religious weddings and free unions as the three forms of marital union. Since annulment is discouraged by the Roman Catholic Church, couples opt to engage in civil or free unions which make divorce easier. However, religious marriages are marked by a formal engagement and fancy celebrations. Men also receive public antagonism when they fail to fulfill their obligations to the family such as working to provide for their needs and instilling discipline in the household. Mothers are also more affectionate to their children than the fathers.

            Similar to many other countries, the Dominican Republic is also plagued by gender inequality. Gender rules are established with higher favor to the male members of the society (, 2007). Sex role differentiation is inculcated since early childhood wherein boys are permitted to run around unclothed while young girls are trained to be more groomed and prim. Little boys are also given more freedom in playing and expressing oneself while girls are carefully watched over or chaperoned by adults. Boys and men are also expected to engage in premarital or extramarital sexual adventures but most of them prefer virgin women for their wives. Thus, parents consistently attempt to protect their daughters in order to secure their chances of having a respectable marriage (, 1989). Families from the upper and middle classes follow a patriarchal family structure wherein the rule is a dominant father-figure in the family. Among the lower-class families, matriarchal structure dominates since the father lives outside the home (, 2007). Also, if the man has fewer economic resources or is absent, the mother is expected to assume the role of being the central family figure (, 1989). Women are also discriminated in employment as they are paid less but still expected to support the household expenses. In the last few years however, women have been given more opportunities for labor force participation and most of them have gained control over the number of children they would have and have achieved higher educational attainment (, 2007).

            Dominicans value warmth, openness and hospitality. In rural areas of the country, people warmly invite a stranger for a meal or coffee. In public, Dominicans are not hesitant to start friendly conversations with any person and they expect others to be willing to converse with them as well (, 2007). People do handshakes as a friendly gesture. Dominican men and women casually greet, embrace or kiss each other as manifestations of affection for friends and colleagues. Politeness is also an integral element of Dominican culture and social relations. People are expected to express a general greeting such as “Buenos Dias” or “Good day” when they enter a room or start a conversation. Social greetings in the country is characterized by saying “Si Dios quiere” (If God wishes) which reflects the people’s belief that personal power is derived from a person’s place within the family, the larger community, and the grand design of the Divine (, 2007).

            Finally, Dominican pay more reverence to family and friends rather than universal human rights and social ethics. These people obtain social or material gains not by complying with strict rules but through people they know. They rely heavily on social savvy, consensus and trust. One of the most popular sayings in the country is “Despues de la excusa, nadie se queda mal” which means “Everything can be fulfilled with the help of other people.”  The core of Dominican living is harmonious relationship with people rather than set of laws or rules of conduct (, 2007).

 

REFERENCES

 

 

LEARNING TO LABOUR ( BY PAUL WILLIS )

PAUL WILLIS

Paul Willis is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating and important cultural theorists of the last century. He had complementary insights which help illuminate other cultural theorist’s views on the genesis and nature of culture. Willis’ work is still very much relevant for our understanding of culture. Societal and cultural change does not mean that similar changes will occur in the community, just as attitudinal change does not mean that there has been a similar change in a social institution. Cultural change is normal and continual, but in various directions, at various rates, and at multiple levels of social life. We understand culture more if we look into Paul Willis’s ideas. They help us gain more insights on what culture is all about.

Chapters Analysis

CHAPTER 1: ETHNOGRAPHY

            Culture, in my own thinking means the way of living, behavior, approaches to life, beliefs, traditions, way of communication, and philosophy of people in a particular group, country, company or organization. For example, Chinese culture differs from American culture primarily because they live in two different places where resources, environment and people that contribute to the formation of culture differ from each other. Culture within the Roman Catholic also differs from the culture of Protestant or the Church of Christ. The Libertarian Party in the senate also has different culture from the Democratic Party same as with female culture from male culture and same-sex culture.

            After reading Willis’ book, I found out that my meaning of culture compared to Willis’ is not that far or contrary. Willis defined culture as the label that refers to the set of practices that produce meanings, and to resultant objects of those practices. He added that culture refers to human engagement in those practices and to their effect of human beings acting together as a cultural group. With his example of cultivating a vegetable garden, he also defined culture as the result of the interaction of nature and human and human with each other. Culture is formed out of the needs of human and dependent on what the nature can give. The resulting culture is also dependent on what medium is utilized. In other words, culture varies from different groups because of the difference of their needs, their interaction to nature and to the medium they used in order to interact with nature.

The function of culture as the influential element in the policy choices of nations has been a fundamental subject in the book of Willis. Oftentimes, the term culture is an amalgamation of the concepts of “attitudes, values, and beliefs” functions a significant role in human behavior and development. Conventional international relations theory has claimed that all nations follow numerous material interests, together with security and state and economic protection. To a certain extent, the context of culture reveals a substantial relationship with its economic progress. In a lot of the discussions in Chapter 1 of the book of Willis, culture has been conceived as the adversarial pattern to realism. General cultural features such as “hard work, initiative, and belief in the value of education” have been focused on as a determinant for investors and other business people. It is in the particular behavior of the people in a specific location that deemed to be the indicator of a country’s destiny in the economic aspects.

Willis recognizes the principle that nations follow their material interests, but all together these academics tender a major and frequently principal function to culture in the policies of nations devoid of integrating what takes place when these concerns collide, which basically takes place regularly. For the duration of Second World War and the immediate postwar phase, culture appeared as a fundamental justification for nations’ policies. To illustrate, Willis pointed out that the United States military pointed to cultural anthropologists to create a report on the cultures of countries such as Germany and Japan and clarify and foresee possible government rules.

Subsequent to the Second World War, a lot of universities instituted regional studies departments and centers. The institution of these area studies departments presented a conviction that each nation is distinct and the method to recognize a state is to throw oneself into the study of it. Specifically, it entails the studying of its language, culture, and specific historical experience. Policymakers trained in this approach regularly employ culture as a variable to foretell prospective coalitions and likely conflicts, frequently providing more credence to culture than they may well appreciate. In this context, trust provides a great degree to these policymakers with regards to their cultural heritage. Academics contend that a cultural heritage of low trust puts a culture at a competitive disadvantage in the international setting for the reason that it is less capable of expanding huge and intricate social institutions. (They provide a great function to culture when trying to foresee the shifts of a nation, particularly of new nations or governments. To illustrate, Willis points out the existence of a religious culture served to be a complicated aspect of the modern capitalist development in nations like Latin America and the Philippines. Moreover, conflicts involving a couple of nations are frequently explicated by cultural elements, regularly as the result of primordial dislikes with one another. Simultaneously, the degree to which nations having diverse cultural relationships cooperate is frequently undervalued.

CHAPTER 2: ANALYSIS

Willis also defined culture in the context of social evolutionism as the triumph of the capitalist world where economics become more dominant over politics, of the privates’ interest over the publics’, of the societies over the national state and of demands over public policies. With these features, cultural change can then be considered as the final phase of world capitalization. It can be pertained to the various changes the world is presently encountering whereas others see it as the purpose of the new world where the wealth of domineering countries can increase and the interest of the privileged minority is prioritized.

A manner of analyzing culture in standpoint of Willis has to do with the economic and social account of global affairs, and especially with the history of past stages of speedy boost in global trade, investment, communication, and authority.

Cultural diversity, including the resurgence of a strong presence and identity, presents challenging issues for Willis: what it means to be a member of a society; the relationship between national and personal identities; identifying and working in both the cohesive and divisive forces in a multicultural society; and the form and flavor of a future republic. For Willis, culture includes institutions, manners, and habits of thought, intentions and ways of life. It encompasses the complex web of meanings which underlie everyday life and behavior--the understandings and expectations which guide our actions and interactions with others.

Willis believes that people today signify different cultural dimensions. In today’s Modern Age the pluralist possibilities of the Old Age were reduced to a single cultural option in which the primary emphasis was placed on uniformity, conformity and homogeneity. A single people in a single place was creating a single culture and working towards a single goal. Justice could be achieved and the desire of the people for dignity and self-respect satisfied if corrupting foreign influences were excluded and institutions and laws were created to protect the people, thereby leaving them free to pursue their peculiar way of life.

In today’s Modern Age Willis attests that there is a growing sense of individualism. This new individualism is more heavily influenced by liberalism and consequently emphasizing the autonomous rational individual emancipated from tradition. Much of this individualism can be related to increasing levels of education and changes in the occupational structure as nations become increasingly a service economy. Today’s Modern Age also possesses the quality of having the masculine context of culture.  Herein, people are open to competition and that they are very aggressive in finding ways to outgrow their rivals. In this point of view, Willis affirms that among the dimensions of culture diversity, the concept of individualism and masculinity is more dominant in the cultural profile of today’s Modern Age than the others.

Other Concepts of the Book

The book affirms that culture can be communicated through explicit or implicit means and that implicit form of communication tends to be more effective in changing culture than explicit forms of communication. The explicit and implicit communication must be relied on to provide external justification for the new strategy and persuade organizational members to adopt the new cultural beliefs and values.

Willis states that there are three basic techniques of cultural implementation: the top-down approach, the participative approach, and the subculture approach. Top-down or imposed changes usually result in changes that are difficult to sustain, even though they may be easy to bring about. In other words, top-down approaches may result in overt compliance, but no covert acceptance. Participative approaches to culture change are difficult and time consuming, but the commitment and acceptance to the change is superior to a changed atmosphere which improves performance.

Methods of evaluation could include monitoring, measuring effectiveness, or comparison of elemental frequency with original baseline measures gained during the internal organizational analysis. An increase in the key element frequency combined with a stagnation of organizational effectiveness could mean that the key elements were not defined correctly. The culture, in other words, has changed with minimal or detrimental impact on organizational effectiveness. It is clear, however, that culture can either facilitate or severely hinder a chosen strategy and further understanding of cultural influences may be paramount to full understanding of effective strategic change.

There is a general framework of cultural modification that gives broad theoretical reasoning for an overall process which will necessarily for tailoring a particular situation. Culture modification should not be evaluated as a process for its own sake, but its success or failure should he determined by whether or not this change will enhance effectiveness under a new strategy as it allows practitioners to understand and organize the constellation of variables that could influence or adversely affect successful change. Success and failure are rarely clearly defined and are perhaps the extremes for a society to survive and grow, before succumbing to the temptation of changing the way things are done is increasingly becoming the central challenge facing leaders that have enjoyed long-term success.

Likewise, Willis affirms that culture is an important factor in understanding a society, because for any society or community to operate effectively it must for some extent have a general set of believe and assumptions on how culture will influence the productivity and the success or failure of any society or community. Culture environment is one of the important principles that influence the organization.  Willis identifies that there are four dimensions that differentiate cultures at a national level (power distance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance), which help to understand that people arrive to organizations with their own national culture.  It can be considered that in terms of social context powerful societies give more attention to social security.

Conclusion

The results of the analysis carried out on the book Learning to Labour by Paul Willis indicated very significant effects on the understanding on culture, even amidst the threats of unrest. Therefore, we could conclude that the understanding on culture and its impacts could still be expected to improve faster than average.

The review of the book’s chapters and concepts revealed very little inconsistencies regarding the present perspectives of culture. This is coherent with the author’s traditional inside-out approach. However, the need to reconcile both the inside-out and outside-in approaches becomes imperative now for the readers.

Cross Cultural Management

 

 

 

Saudi Arabia: A Culture Ingrained In Islamic Principles

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

Many of the difficult challenges faced by international managers arise from the differences in a country’s culture. The cultural characteristics of a country vary significantly from others.  Mixing different cultures, languages and faiths will undoubtedly become a challenging and complex situation. Differences in terms of values and management behavior may clash as the result of lack of knowledge and insensitivity both in business and personal interactions. With this, culture becomes the most important issue in the conduct of international business.

Culture is an essential factor in the intercultural communication. With the knowledge of the culture, one will be able to recognize the uniqueness of the country and therefore communicate in the most effective way. This will also lead to the avoidance of behaviors that are deemed inappropriate or offensive by the society. With the greater awareness and understanding of the culture from a specific country, managers will be able to acquire the ability to coexist peacefully with people even if they do not necessarily share their values. In this respect, culture plays a pivotal role in effective communication.

The objective of this paper is to discuss the culture of Saudi Arabia. It will include the country values such as religion, social behaviors, appearance and communications as well as the implications of these to management and organizational behavior. A more detailed analysis of the cultural framework of the country will be presented using the Hofstede Cultural dimensions.

 

 

Table of Contents

Title page………………………………………………………………………………...1

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….2

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………3

Part 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………..4

1.1  Importance of Culture ……………………………………………………...5

1.2  Country Profile ……………………………………………………………...6

Part 2: Country Values………………………………………………………………….8

            2.1 Religion ……………………………………………………………………...8

            2.2 Social Behavior …………………………………………………..............10

            2.3 Appearance ……………………………………………………………….15

            2.4 Communications ………………………………………………………….16

Part 3: Hofstede Cultural Dimensions……………………………………………….17

            3.1 Power Distance …………………………………………………………...19

            3.2 Uncertainty Avoidance …………………………………………………...21

            3.3 Masculinity/Femininity ……………………………………………………23

            3.4 Collectivism/Individualism ……………………………………………….24

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………..27

References …………………………………………………………………………….28

Appendices …………………………………………………………………………….29

 

           

 

I.  Introduction

The continuing growth in international business relations increases the occurrence of business negotiations among people from different countries and cultures. This creates significant challenges for international managers unfamiliar with the norms of different groups. Intercultural communication is basically the communication between different cultures which is also known as cross-cultural communication. Intercultural communication theories posit that globalizing forces of economic integration, tourism and migration are important forces that provide a rationale for increased intercultural communication.

Being aware of one’s culture and how it contrasts with others is the first step to achieve proficiency in intercultural communication. Another step is to recognize the barriers in accommodating intercultural communication and overcoming them. Some of these barriers may occur naturally and it takes conscious effort to surmount them. However it may be difficult, it is necessary to become intercultural competent because this will lead to a more productive and effective working relationships in a diversified workplace.

The ability to become proficient in intercultural communication and recognizing the barriers lies on the knowledge and understanding of a country specific culture. In this paper, the culture of the Saudi Arabia is discussed based on the country values they hold which are rooted primarily from Islamic principles. The following sections will present a more detailed discussion and analysis of the Arab culture and its implications on managerial and organizational behavior.

1.1 Culture

Culture provides predictability of human kind. It offers predictable pattern of behavior that leads to cooperative expectancies. Every culture has its own set of values that determines goodness and badness. It is this uniqueness that must be understood if one is to communicate cross culturally. Increasing the exposure to people of other cultures will influence and change one’s view of other cultures. At a larger context, it helps in the discovery of shared humanness through examining, allowing and respecting differences. In addition to the building understanding through valuing differences, cross cultural comparison supplies the necessary information to help people who are learning to live and work in new situations (1998).

 According to  (2004) intercultural communication consists of three major elements: (1) worldview (2) language and (3) nonverbal communication (particularly the use of space and time). Worldview is the orientation of people to things and issues with the concept of being. Another significant element is language which is the medium through which a particular culture expresses its worldview. The importance of language is greater especially when cultures speak different languages.  The differences in meaning across culture can also become significant when each culture uses the same language.

The importance of cross cultural communication has gained increased attention over the years. It is considered to be the most important issue in successful conduct of international businesses. The absence of insights into the ways of others is less likely to develop credibility and inspire a workforce. Culture affects how businesses are run, what characteristics are to look for in the selection of employees and how to manage them and work with teams (2004).

            In Multinational corporations, businesspeople from different cultures interact. They step outside their cultural and business environment and create new context. With this, MNCs understand the impact of key organizational concepts such as hiring practices, promotion policies, decision making, negotiation styles, regulations and business laws on the intercultural communication process. They bring with them their own corporate cultures and from these cultures emerges a new transaction culture. It is through intercultural communication that they are able to understand the way of doing business in a particular cultural setting. This paper will examine the culture of Saudi Arabia and discuss the implication of their culture to managers.

1. 2 Country Profile

Saudi Arabia occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered in the north by Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait; on the east by Persian Gulf and Qatar; on the southeast by United Arab Emirates and Oman on the south by the Republic of Yemen; and on the west by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. According to the  (2007), Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and the home to two of the holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The Modern Saudi State was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD after 30 year campaign of unifying the Arabian Peninsula. The country remains to be the leading producer of oil and natural gas in the world and holds about 25% of the world’s proven oil reserves. The government continues to pursue economic reforms and diversification particularly after the accession in the World Trade Organization in December 2005 and promotes foreign investments in the kingdom.  See Appendix A for Country Data Profile

 

 

Population: 20.7 million

Surface Area: 2,149.7 thousand sq. km

Population per sq. km: 9.6

Population growth: 2.6%

Life expectancy (1999): 72 years

GNI per capita (1999): 6,900 US$

GDP (1999): 139.4 billion US$

Source:

            The culture of Saudi Arabia is rich and has been shaped by the Islamic heritage, its historical role as an ancient trade center and its Bedouin traditions. Saudi people have taken their values and even their style of dress and adapted them to the modern world ( 1996). The age-old traditions have evolved and are highly regarded. They include generosity and hospitality which every Saudi family offers to strangers, friends and family (2007).

            Such traditions are learned at an early age from families and schools. The highlights of the year are holy month of Ramadan and the Hajj (pilgrimage) season, and the national holidays that follow them. During the holy month of Ramadan which culminates with the Eid-Al-Fitr holiday it is customary to buy presents and clothes for children and visit friends and relatives. The other highlight is the Hajj season during which millions of Muslim pilgrims from around the world come to Makkah. The Hajj season concludes with Eid Al-Adha holiday in which it is traditional for families to slaughter a sheep in memory of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, (2007). 

II. Country Values

2.1 Religion

Islam has been founded 1,400 years ago by the prophet of Islam, Muhammad. It is an Arabic word which means peace, love, and complete submission and obedience to God (2007). The words of the prophet, Muhammad are regarded as directly coming from God. They were compiled to what has become known as the Koran or the Quran. The five duties of the Muslim are the recitation of the creed (shahada), prayer five times a day (salat), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawn) and pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime (haj). Muslims fast for one month during the Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim calendar to commemorate the revelation of God’s law to Muhhamad. During this period, Muslims abstain from eating, drinking, smoking and sexual activity (1996).

Saudi Arabians place a high value on their Islamic religion. It has become a comprehensive guide for all social behavior, a total way of life. There is no difference between Islam and Muslim. Islam is the religion which is followed by the Muslim. A Muslim lives his while life according to the teachings of Islam. A true Muslim is one who is loving, caring, promotes peace and is fully obedient and submits to the will of God (2007).Wahabbism is the particular branch of Islam practiced in the country. The introduction of Islam brought a highly cohesive set of moral and social values that permeate the society to this day. More than just a religion, Islam has become the all-encompassing in scope. It teaches that all the things animate and inanimate are God’s creation and are all under the dominion of God. These beliefs is so central and intensely ingrained in Saudi Arabia that it cannot be calculated simply by observing expressions of behavior whether pious or profane ( 2005).

           

Figure1. Religion in Arab World

Source:  (2007)

The country is considered by the U.S Department of State as an Islamic country without legal protection of the freedom of religion. Islam is not official religion and all the citizens are required to be Muslims. It is also prohibited by the government to practice non-Muslim religions. Further, the Islamic practice is limited to a school from the Sunni branch of Islam. Any practice that opposes this interpretation is discouraged. The spread of Muslim teachings that does not conform to the officially accepted Islamic interpretations is strictly prohibited ( 2007).

Religion is the hemp that brings together all the Saudis. The king is not only the political leader but the religious leader as well. The Koran serves as the framework that runs the country. For the Saudis, piety is honorable and religion is not separated from their daily living. Fatalism is expressed by the frequent use of inshallah or God willing. The greatest joy of the Muslim is to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca. The permeating cohesion of the family, honor and marriage are the religious beliefs of Saudis (2004).

2.2 Social Behavior

Saudi Arabia is the largest of the Arab Gulf States in population and size. It is culturally diverse country with many foreign national workers. The dominant social norm is rooted from the interpretation of Islamic texts which is stricter than in most of the Islamic countries. The Arabian Society has been equated by many Westerners with the nomadic Bedouin tribes. Although much of the population is tribally based, nomadic culture plays a secondary role in forming the contemporary Saudi culture and customs. For the most part, the traditional Saudi culture evolves around the sedentary inhabitant of towns and villages located wherever water can be found. They had symbiotic relationships with nomads. Only in Hijaz did genuine urban culture actually evolved centering on the Islamic holy cities of Makkah and Medina and the port city of Jeddah (2005).

            The people form a closed and extremely conservative society due to the harsh climactic conditions and physical isolation. Until the advent of the modernization during the twentieth century, the social dynamics had changed little since the pre-Islamic times. The dominant relationships in the Saudi society are personal. Allegiance to Islam, loyalty to the family and loyalty to the tribe are the strongest bonds felt by Saudi Arabians. 

The mixing of the opposite sexes is strongly discouraged especially in the public. Men are not supposed to talk with women except in extreme necessity. The rigid sexual segregation is widely practiced and has effects in the occupational and educational opportunities for women. Saudi women cannot drive, are seldom allowed to marry non Saudis and may never marry non Muslims. All of which are permitted among Saudi men. There is also the matter of dress. Majority of Saudi women are veiled, a practice that begins as the girl reaches puberty (1994).

            The traditional Saudi social behavior follows highly stylized patterns that have remained intact despite modern Western social influences. The gap between the Saudi and Western social customs appears so wide that it becomes difficult for Westerners visiting the Kingdom for the first time. Some of the things that should be avoided are causing the Saudis embarrassment and loss of face, not exposing the soles of the feet, not using the left hand when eating with one’s fingers and not rushing to business before social conventions such as accepting tea and Bedouin coffee are observed (2005).

            There are also several types of greetings that are used. It is best to wait for the counterpart to initiate the greeting. Men shake hands with other men. However, it is advisable for businesswomen to wait for the man to offer his hand before shaking hands with them. A more traditional greeting between men involves the grasping of each others right hand while placing the left hand on the right shoulder and exchanging kisses on the cheek. Men who walk hand in hand are considered to show a sign of friendship. It is common to take off the shoes before entering the building and follow the lead of the host. The bottom of the feet is not to be shown at any circumstances because it is offensive for them like the use of ‘thumbs up’. It is not necessary to offer gifts to guests and hosts although they may be appreciated (2007)

            Drinking alcohol and eating pork are also illegal. This is part of the Islamic dietary laws which is strictly enforced throughout Saudi Arabia. Virtually all meals include the Arabic unleavened bread or the khobz. Other staples are lkamb, grilled chicken, falafel (deep-fried chickpea balls), shawarma (spit-cooked sliced lamb), and Ful medames (a paste of fava beans, garlic and lemon). Another famous custom is the Arabic tea which is used in casual and formal meetings between friends, family sand even to strangers (2007).

            Some of these customs are taken from practical reasons such as the custom of not eating with the left hand because it is used for doing personal hygiene. Another example is the hospitality offered to strangers. Saudis and Arabs are known for their hospitality. This custom stems from the ancient recognition of the necessity to offer sanctuary to desert travelers who might not survive and because the roles can be reversed. Many of the social customs are related to the ancient code of personal and collective honor (sharaf). For instance, offering hospitality is not only based on the ancient mutual security considerations but also a matter of honor in which the Saudis are concerned with their own roles as host or hostess as well as with the welfare of the recipient (2005).

            Male honor is expressed in terms of virility, whereas female honor is expressed in terms of modesty. Thus, the traditional custom of gender segregation is viewed in terms of modesty. The importance of modesty remains to be intact among younger Saudi women who follow with the social restrictions placed upon them. Sincerity (ikhas) which is a form of personal honor is also of great importance. Because the society is person oriented, the sincerity is a crucial element of personal relationships. Even when foreigners disregard social customs, if they are sincere their lapses are forgivable particularly if associated with loyalty.

The understanding of the importance of honor and shame in the culture provides insight to some behaviors.  (1987) argued that shame is a factor in the generosity of Saudis ( 2004). In addition to this, hospitality adds to the reputation of the giver and not necessarily to benefit the recipient. The fear of making mistakes that may result to shame also explains excessive delays in the business processes. Many Saudis drink or gamble when outside of the country even though such acts are forbidden by Islam. Perhaps they feel the honor is not lost if no one is to bestow shame on them. Another cohesive force besides family and honor is marriage. The marriage model is the same for the modern Saudis as it is for the nomads. Partners are chosen by the elder family members.

The value of investing in friendships to facilitate transactions is also essential. This attitude goes all the way back to the nomadic days when the tribes had to cultivate a wide circle of friendships as possible particularly among the more noble tribes. One must invest a lot of time and effort in cultivating and maintaining friendships in all sectors – the government, banking system, the marketplace, private businesses and others. It takes a great deal of time and a long period of cultivation to have the right contracts. This investment though pays off particularly for subsequent deals where the gestation does not take as long (1996).

Saudis also believed that what can be accomplished in a unit of time depends not on their effort but on God’s will. They therefore do the best they can in any situation and accept delays as signs that God’s approval have not been earned. Westerners may find it difficult to adjust to the orientation of time because it is opposed to their own sense of mastery over nature and life itself (1996).Certain adjustment need to be made in allowing more time such as being patient in waiting for results. Saudis do not share the same sense of urgency about the use of time as most westerners seem to have to them because of the belief that nothing can rush God’s will upon which everything depends.

2.3 Appearance

The social norms of the natives have the external appearance of puritanical Islamic practice. Both men and women are dressed in cultural and religious dress and women cover their head and bodies. The typical dress of the Saudi man is a thobe, a brilliant white gown, the agal, a black ring that holds the scarf in place and the ghutra, a red and white square shaped scarf covering the head. Most Saudi from all the sectors of the society wears this custom dress although Western style clothing is becoming popular among the youth ( 2007).

One’s appearance is very important in the Saudi society. Visitors are expected to abide by the standards of modesty but they do not necessarily have to adopt the native clothing since the traditional clothes on the foreigners may be deemed offensive. However, they are expected to cover most of the body despite heat. It is not appropriate to bare shoulders, stomach, calves and thighs. Men in business meetings are required to wear a jacket and a tie. They should wear long pants and shirt preferably with long sleeves and buttoned up to the collar. Men should also avoid wearing jewelry particularly around the neck. Likewise, women are expected to wear modest clothing while in the public. They are expected to wear high necklines sleeves at least to the elbows. It is a good idea to keep a scarf especially if entering a Mosque ( 2007). 

2.4 Communications

When communicating, the subject of women should not be discussed not even the health of the wife or the daughter. The topic of Israel should also be avoided. The names of the Saudis are often confusing and it may be necessary to get the names in English especially those one will meet, speak to or correspond before hand. It must be understood that the communications occur at very slow pace. Saudis do not expect one to talk during periods of silence and using the word ‘yes’ usually means ‘possibly’. Saudi host may interrupt the meeting and conversation for 15 to 20 minutes to perform daily prayers. During the meeting the one who asks the most questions is regarded as the least important person. Decision makers are those silent observers (2007).

            According to (1996), Saudis are generally not confrontational. This implies that they will not be open and honest about their problems and complaints. Saying ‘no’ is an indirect way of saying that mattes will be delayed and that they avoid being accessible. The society is shame oriented and so they suffer from being found out rather than from actually violating the norm. Therefore, they place importance in the preserving their favorable social image. They dislike hurried and arrogant behavior on the part of the visitors and partners. Such behavior suggests that visitors consider themselves superior and the Saudis are not important to spend time with ().

            Initial conversations usually revolve around personal matters. They place great value on spending a lot of time getting socially and personally acquainted with their potential business partners. Another important thing which foreigners have to learn is the way in which social space is used. These are the same social mores used during the majlis system of tribal meetings. During the early days, subjects had access to leaders through the majlis system – the leader had an open door policy and anyone who had problem can approach him personally and meet with him in his tent. This pattern is used in modern offices (1996). In a formal session, open disagreements must not be brought with Arabs. Even if they disagree, they seldom provide ‘no’ but will take actions that hint that they do not agree at all hoping that the party gets the message. Westerners are known to be straight but such approach may not work in the context of the Arab culture.

            The use of interpreter is also important in communicating especially during business meetings. A local agent can help to clarify issues and questions that may arise while dealing with the other side. Saudis appreciate being informed ahead of time of any agenda that will be discussed with them. Thus, it is necessary to translate all documents into Arabic, English (1996).

III. Hofstede Dimensions

The Hofstede Analysis for Saudi Arabia is identical to other Arab countries. Their Muslim faith plays a major role in the lives of the people. Other pre dominant characteristics are large power distance and uncertainty avoidance. This indicates that the leaders are expected to separate themselves from the group and issue complete and specific directives. Muslim faith is also demonstrated to play a significant role in the lives of the people. Large power distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68) are predominant Hofstede dimension characteristics in this country. The Saudi society is more likely to follow a caste system that does not allow significant upward mobility of the people. It is highly rule-oriented with laws, rules regulations and controls so that the amount of uncertainty in reduced. More so, the inequalities of power and wealth are allowed to flourish in the society (2007).  

The combination of these two dimensions creates a situation where the leaders have the most power and authority and the rules, laws and regulations reinforce their own leadership and control in the society. The leadership is more likely to arise as authoritarian rather than diplomatic or democratic. The high power distance indicates a high degree inequality of power and wealth distributed among the people. It is expected and accepted that the leaders will separate themselves and such condition remains unchallenged by the people but instead accepted as part of the cultural heritage.

The Masculinity Index (MAS), the third highest Hofstede Dimension is 52 which is slightly higher than the average of 50.2 for all countries in the Hofstede MAS dimension. This indicates that the while women have limited rights in the country, the reason must be due religion rather than cultural paradigm. Lastly, is the Individualism (IDV) that ranked at 38 out of 64 countries. This indicates that the society is collectivist as compared to individualist culture and it is illustrated in the close long term relationship to the member group be it in the family, the extended family or extended relationships. Such culture greatly values loyalty and overrides most other societal rules (2007). See Appendix B for Hofstede’s Dimension of Cultural Scales

3.1 Power Distance

            In  (1991) power distance scale which is the extent to which less powerful citizens accept that power is distributed unequally, Saudi Arabia rank 7^th out of the 53 nations (2004). Today, Muslims look forward to a future that hold Islamic promises and remains steadfast to Islamic solutions in solving their problems. In Saudi Arabia, Islamic values shape the managerial attitudes and practices. These values have a strong emphasis on the employees’ obedience to their leaders. The manager’s authority is rightly accepted and subordinates are expected to render respect to their superiors.

 (1999) asserted that the Islamic values emphasize on harmony, cooperation and brotherly relationships (2001). (2001) found out that manager and employees interaction are influenced by Islamic practices. As an example, Muslim managers and workers meet and pray together regardless of their positions. Such interactions are argued to lessen the physical and psychological distance between management and their employees ().

            Furthermore, the consultative styles that prevail in Arab countries are different from Western consultative style. It has been argued by (1980) that the Arab culture expects the consultation from the subordinates (2001). However, they do not expect to participate in the process of decision making. The authoritarian management style is manifested in organizations in which the work is done based on the social leadership skills of the paternalistic authoritarian managers

Saudi society is also a high context culture which means that only a small amount of information must be explicitly stated for the understanding to occur because so much information is implicit. In low context cultures such as the American and the Northern European, it is important to use the precise verbal messages. In such cultures, the communication is more explicit and direct.

On the other hand, a high context culture such that of Arab countries is one in which the messages are ambiguous because the environment, setting and the relationship bestow meaning to the messages.  According to (1995), people who are in a high context culture perceive messages from low context cultures as less credible mainly because they require more and precise verbal messages in communicating (2003). In short, Saudis adhere to many written and unwritten rules, tolerate hierarchies, follow formalities, practice obedience and encourage conformity.

Additionally, conflict is communicated differently among these cultures. Low context culture prefers an open confrontation while the high context culture deals with conflict in a subtle and discreet manner. People in the high context cultures are also more attentive to subliminal messages that are attached to nonverbal behavior as compared to those in the low context culture (2003). Hence, communicating with people from the Arab countries with a high context culture must consider both form of communication and the perception of the word or the language that is used to convey the message.

Understanding non verbal behavior is also a requirement since non verbal cues constitute the majority of the individual’s communication process. However, the meanings attach to these forms of communication vary from culture to culture. As in the Arab cultures, continued eye contacts are strongly emphasized. Americans on the other hand, consider such gesture as a sign of aggression (1999).

3.2 Uncertainty Avoidance

The high uncertainty avoidance indicates that the society has low level of tolerance for uncertainty. Levels of uncertainty are reduced and minimized by implementing strict rules, laws, policies and regulations. The ultimate goal is to control everything so as to eliminate any unexpected occurrences or events. This leads to the high level of uncertainty avoidance which makes the society unable to accept change readily. They do not typically feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situations but they also do not wish to be assimilated towards them. They put strong emphasis on kinship and interpersonal networks ().

The Saudi Arabian government is a staunch protector of the social institutions formed as a result of the country’s religious obligations. The Koran is the constitution and the sharia is the comprehensive system of religious laws that regulate the community life. Specific institutions, such as the Ministry of Pilgrimage Affairs and the Committee for Public Morality, have been set up to make sure Muslims observe Islamic religious practices (1996). The society in general reinforces the religious control of the government. Businesses close during prayer time and the mass media is heavy wit various religious materials. Social and peer pressure makes the Saudis perform their religious obligations. They devote themselves to God and believe that only God decides what events should occur and how their lives should be.

In Islam, management is a derivative of leadership which must be based on the Islamic principles. Fundamental of these principles are truth and justice. Islam endures with the relationship with God, man, society and the divine love. As such, the workings of the various elements of the organization must be directly affected by this relationship (2000). Recognizing this relationship is necessary to grasp an understanding on the organization of management in the Islamic system

Fundamentally, Muslims are distinguished by their faithfulness to terms of contracts. They also regard labor highly considering it as an indispensable part of their faith. Idleness and spending time in unproductive work to them is a manifestation of lack of faith. All persons are expected to work to earn their own living and no one is allowed to become a liability to their family unless mentally or physically incapacitated. They also hold a concept of positive reinforcement through reward system (2000). This means motivating them by providing rewards as soon as the job is accomplished.

Islamic management requires a mutual reinforcement relationship. Individuals are motivated by the need to be part of a group and therefore do whatever is necessary to maintain such membership in the group. As a result, the organization may lack the need to create external control mechanisms to ensure that the employees do what he is tasked. The employee then may control his own behavior to satisfy the need for contextualism. Hence, if the organization tried to impose external control mechanisms, the workers will feel alienated and that they are viewed to be suspicious and outsider to the group. Such feelings may lead to product sabotage, poor performance, low productivity and increase in absenteeism (2000).

3.3 Masculinity and Femininity

 (1991) concluded that Arab countries scored 52 out of 100 in the masculinity scale which gives them the rank of 23 out of 53. This average score seem surprising but the feminine societies stress solidarity, emotional displays, relationships among people and resolution of conflicts by compromise. Masculine cultures stress achievement, competition and resolution of conflicts through violence. Arab culture incorporates several of Hofstede’s feminine characteristics (2004).

 (2000) suggest that the strong emphasis in Arab culture on masculine role attributes is mediated by the need to have good working relationship with one’s direct superior, to work with people who cooperate well with one another, to live in an area appropriate to one’s self image and to have employment security so that one will be able to work in the interest of the family for one’s enterprise as long as one wishes. These can be seen as feminine and high relationship attributes ().

As (2005) argued, the primary male roles were as providers and protectors of the family while female roles were as nurturers and mangers within the home. The seclusion of women inside the home and the restriction of their mobility in the public are pre Islamic norms. They are based on the Middle Eastern concept of modesty (). The differences between sexes are taught at an early age. Honor is paramount to the Saudi male and is specially centered on his women, whether they be his sisters, daughters or wives. The social restrictions are immense and the Saudi government defends such restrictions as part of the Islamic creed. There is some truth to that claim since the Koran teaches that women are secondary to men as the Bible authorizes men to rule over women (1994).

3.4 Individualism and Collectivism

Individualism and creativity is also encouraged in the Saudi culture. This country ranks 26 of the 53 nations on  (1991) scale of individualism which places it on the collectivist side of the spectrum. Collectivism is having a ‘we’ consciousness belonging to a cohesive in group at the beginning at birth and taking the groups’ opinion as one (2004). Private opinions and individual achievement are not valued in this setting.

One of the strongest manifestations of the Saudi collectivism is the family. The extended family is the single most important structural unit of the society and virtually all Saudis consider themselves as members of an extended family. Each family member shares a collective ancestry, a collective respect for the elders and collective obligation and responsibility for the welfare of other family members. At the time of the birth of Islam, the traditional Saudi extended family was patriarchal, patrilineal, patrilocal endogamous and occasionally polygamous. Patriarchal means the family authority is concentrated among the elders, male and female; patrilineal refers to tracing descent through the male line; patrilocal refers to family members living in close proximity; endogamous refers to choosing spouses from within the same tribe and, extended family or social group and polygamous refers to having multiple wives ( 2005).

 (2004) also suggest that the extended family is the norm although with new prosperity more nuclear families are living alone. Despite this fact, other members are either close by or in the same compound which replicated the Bedouin camp in the modern times. For Saudis, the family determines how they think, whom they will marry and where they work. Involvement in the family is not perceived as interference but welcomed as a form of support. The loyalty to the family takes precedence over work or friends and is protected by the group. In the workplace, relatives receive preferential consideration for hiring and promotional opportunities. The oldest male family member is honored as the head of the family. Children are brought up by all the adults in the family and even friends. This leads to the homogenous upbringing of the children. Separation from the family is the ultimate punishment ().

Honor and shame are also major features of the culture. When the honor is tarnished, they feel shame and lose face. The same is felt by the family who is also shamed in some association. Members of the collectivist culture thus place great importance to fit in harmoniously and save face. Honor is perceived to have been lost as a result of stinginess, poor treatment of the old and the weak people, fathering only daughters, being passed over for special favors, yielding traffic and immoral sexual conduct of women.

Saudis value strong value loyalty to their family. The status of the person is based on kinship lineage than on individual achievement. Because family loyalty is strong, most of behaviors are derive from the social reality including nepotism in the workplace. Family members and relatives employed in the same business organization are even holding high positions. Objective considerations are of secondary importance in determining the selection of employees and in assuring the necessary cooperation within the organization. It is common to see many friends and relatives of top officials working in their ministries, departments and divisions. People must deal with highly personalized and family oriented business environment in which personal trust is of paramount consideration (1996).

Saudis value dong business through people they know and respect. Their culture revolves around family tiers and extended family connections. Success in business is dependent on the connections they make within their own family and institutional networks. With the rapid modernization, these traditional values are replaced by more modern values such as power based on the possession of knowledge or technical information. Traces of traditional values are expected to remain for a long time to come though (1996)

Conclusion

Effective cross cultural communication and management require one to acquire basic knowledge of the country’s culture and their way of doing things. This paper has discussed the complexities of the Arab culture particularly of Saudi Arabia and its implications on management and organizations. The culture of Saudi Arabia is largely built around Islamic principles. Saudis strongly adhere to the Koran and based their working practices on the relationship with God, man, society and the divine love. Additionally, the values of modesty, honor and face saving are important in every aspect of their lives. The society is also person oriented and the cultivation of personal relationships is essential in doing business with them. The family also plays a crucial role because the Saudis consider themselves as members of an extended family. Also, Arabs remains highly ritualistic in their interaction. As such, knowledge of their customs and protocols is necessary to succeed.

            Based on the Hofstede Cultural dimensions the Saudi society is dominated by large power distance and uncertainty avoidance. This explains why Saudis strictly follow their Islamic rules, laws and regulations. They follow an authoritarian style of leadership which controls the whole society. The society in accept the power distance and reinforce the religious control of the government. In terms of masculinity, the culture is somewhat average which indicates that the segregation of the sexes is attributed to the religion rather than the culture. Lastly, the culture is collectivist as illustrated by the close relationships to the family, friends and to others.

 

 

 

Appendix A

 

Saudi Arabia Data Profile

2000 2005 2006   People Population, total 20.7 million 23.1 million ..   Population growth (annual %) 2.3 2.6 ..   Life expectancy at birth, total (years) 71.4 72.6 ..   Fertility rate, total (births per woman) 4.4 3.8 ..   Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) 23.0 21.0 ..   Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000) 29.0 26.0 ..   Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total) .. .. ..   Malnutrition prevalence, weight for age (% of children under 5) .. .. ..   Immunization, measles (% of children ages 12-23 months) 94.0 96.0 ..   Primary completion rate, total (% of relevant age group) .. 85.2 ..   School enrollment, primary (% gross) .. 90.7 ..   School enrollment, secondary (% gross) .. 87.6 ..   School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) 22.2 28.4 ..   Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education (%) .. 101.1 ..   Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) .. .. 79.4   Environment Surface area (sq. km) 2.0 million 2.0 million ..   Forest area (sq. km) 27,280.0 27,280.0 ..   CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) 13.2 .. ..   Improved water source (% of population with access) .. .. ..   Improved sanitation facilities, urban (% of urban population with access) .. .. ..   Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita) 5,482.1 .. ..   Energy imports, net (% of energy use) -332.5 .. ..   Electric power consumption (kWh per capita) 5,665.8 .. ..   Economy GNI, Atlas method (current US$) 168.1 billion 289.2 billion ..   GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) 8,140.0 12,510.0 ..   GDP (current US$) 188.4 billion 309.8 billion ..   GDP growth (annual %) 4.9 6.6 ..   Inflation, GDP deflator (annual %) 11.6 16.0 ..   Agriculture, value added (% of GDP) 4.9 .. ..   Industry, value added (% of GDP) 53.9 .. ..   Services, etc., value added (% of GDP) 41.1 .. ..   Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) 43.7 60.7 ..   Imports of goods and services (% of GDP) 24.9 26.4 ..   Gross capital formation (% of GDP) 18.7 16.2 ..   States and markets Time required to start a business (days) .. 64.0 39.0   Market capitalization of listed companies (% of GDP) 35.6 208.6 ..   Military expenditure (% of GDP) 10.6 8.2 ..   Fixed line and mobile phone subscribers (per 1,000 people) 210.1 739.7 ..   Internet users (per 1,000 people) 22.3 .. ..   Roads, paved (% of total roads) 29.9 .. ..   High-technology exports (% of manufactured exports) 1.4 1.3 ..   Global links Merchandise trade (% of GDP) 57.2 77.7 ..   Official development assistance and official aid (current US$) 21.9 million 26.3 million ..   Source: World Development Indicators database, April 2007

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B

 

Hofstede’s Dimension of Culture Scales
Country	Power Distance	Individualism	Uncertainty Avoidance	Masculinity	Long term orientation
Arab countries (Saudi Arabia)	80	38	68	53
Argentina	49	46	86	56
Australia	36	90	51	61	31
Austria	11	55	70	79
Belgium	65	75	94	54
Brazil	69	38	76	49	65
Canada	39	80	48	52	23
Chile	63	23	86	28
China, Mainland					118
Colombia	67	13	80	64
Costa Rica	35	15	86	21
Denmark	18	74	23	16
East Africa	64	27	52	41
Equador	78	8	67	63
Finland	33	63	59	26
France	68	71	86	43
Germany FR	35	67	65	66	31
Great Britain	35	89	35	66	25
Greece	60	35	112	57
Guatemala	95	6	101	37
Hong Kong	68	25	29	57	96
India	77	48	40	56	61
Indonesia	78	14	48	46
Iran	58	41	59	43
Ireland	28	70	35	68
Israel	13	54	81	47
Italy	50	76	75	70
Jamaica	45	39	13	68
Japan	54	46	92	95	80
Malaysia	104	26	36	50
Mexico	81	30	82	69
Netherlands	38	80	53	14	44
New Zealand	22	79	49	58	30
Norway	31	69	50	8
Pakistan	55	14	70	50
Panama	95	11	86	44
Peru	64	16	87	42
Philippines	94	32	44	64	19
Poland					32
Portugal	63	27	104	31
Salvador	66	19	94	40
Singapore	74	20	8	48	48
South Africa	49	65	49	63
South Korea	60	18	85	39	75
Spain	57	51	86	42
Sweden	31	71	29	5	33
Switzerland	34	68	58	70
Taiwan	58	17	69	45	87
Thailand	64	20	64	34	56
Turkey	66	37	85	45
Uruguay	61	36	100	38
USA	40	91	46	62	29
Venezuela	81	12	76	73
West Africa	77	20	54	46	16
Yugoslavia	76	27	88	21

 

Source: Geert Hofstede Analysis on Saudi Arabia’, 2007

Deliver and monitor service to customer

PART 1: Description of Cultural Group

 

1.    Which cultural group are you focussing? Give an explanation of the origins of this culture and history in Australia.

 

Nowadays, German Australians is one of the most dominant ethnic groups in Australia with at least 700,000 populations as of 2001.  It is believed that their first arrival in the country began as early as 1800s where they acted as missionaries, voyagers and refugees.  In 1950 where the wave of gold rushes was activated, their numbers rose drastically due to the substantial arrival of prospectors.  In their early settlement in the country, this cultural group is concentrated in Riverina as well as Queensland where they combined numbers reached at least forty-five thousand.  From this day onwards to First World War, they were considered the biggest ethnic group trailing only British groups.  Due to their influx, they had able to establish their own status in Australian society that resulted to having German schools, use of language and even attributing streets to German names.  Their significance in building Australian society was vital especially at those early times.

 

However, when World Wars were triggered, the position of Australia as allied force discriminated German Australians even they were “innocent”.  They were considered internal enemies and were forced to be persecuted and deported by Australian authorities.  German institutions in the country were abolished including schools and German-street names while German language was banned from use within Australian borders.  Due to these harsh consequences, some German Australians that decided to remain in the country changed their German to Australian names.  This was intended to show their commitment to Australia and limiting their implied support to German ideologies.  In the post world-war, German immigrants had increased to regain habitation in the country.  Their number had come back to high levels fuelled by assisting by Australian government to migration programs.             

 

Early settlement of German Australians where highlighted further by six-early groups that had their own distinct purposes of migrating into the country.  They were the origin of German Australians.  In November 1838, the Prince George and Bengalee Group, who were mainly Lutheran, is the first group arrived in the country to avoid religious trial by a Prussian King.  They settled in Klemzig near Adelaide.  The second group arrived also in the same year called the Zebra Group for the purpose of acquiring land in Adelaide Hills called Hahndorf.  The Catharina Group arrived in Osmond in the following year.  In October 1941, the Skjold Group had followed their Prince George and Bengalee Group to practice their preferred religion without prosecution who settled in Lobethal and Bethenien.  The fifth group landed in 1847 and called the Hermann von Beckerath Group that were the pioneer in the flourishing of wine industry in the country particularly in South Australia.  The last early wave of Germans was the San Francisco Group in 1950 which also reflected the purposes of two other groups from Prussia.              

 

 

2.    List six ways in which this culture is deferent from dominate Anglo culture? Consider values, beliefs, customs, religion, dress and habits.

 

German Australians would reflect that they came from the land of poets and thinkers. Strong influence to Australian values is British and European cultures with contemporary American shaping.  British culture is eminent in cooking techniques while American culture is in television programs.  Such values are not supported in Australian arts perhaps because of high level of originality of the country's music, painting, theater and literature.  German Australians typically are described as high culture of Europe. Popular culture influences more of the population rather than the country's high culture such as ballet, expensive galleries and symphony orchestras.  Australian value sports as serious engagement because it reflects their patriotism and its expression to world audience.  The preference of favorite sport is high stimulated by the country's whether and geographical structure of respective state.  Among these sports are football, rugby, soccer and cricket. 

 

German Australians are more cooperative with the Government and authorities.  Australians follow norms of the society with strong reflection in everyday life.  They distrust wealthy and influential personalities showing their egalitarian attitude and creation of a tall poppy syndrome within the Australian psyche.  Evidenced by modernized public health and education systems, the belief "fair go" means that the population is bias to the idea that wealthy and influential personalities are enjoying unequal advantages in their lifestyle.  Common Australian behavior, tall poppy syndrome is the condition wherein a person sees higher economic status, social place and political influence as a source of loopholes to integrity, assumptions without concrete evidence, biases and loss of merit. 

 

German Australians prefer the masculine-based society. The code of conduct expected between men and women is to emphasize just and friendly behavior.  This thinking is also affecting the entire society.  In sports, the underdog preference of Australians is observed particularly in Rugby competitions where the weaker team is more preferred by the local audience even if they came from other countries.  However, when the country comes face-to-face with underdogs, patriotism overcomes the underdog preference.  The occurrence of underdog preference is also eminent in the values of Australian of continuously criticizing authorities and known personalities who applied maltreatment or injustice to laymen directly or through creation of turmoil.

 

In nature, German Australians are detail-oriented.  According to experts, Australians are generally characterized as relaxed, tolerant and easy-going in their approach in life.  Also, the country is willing to accept and even celebrate defeat because it reflects sacrifice and nobility.  German Australians are less indulged with creating something that will compliment them. In the area of sense of humor, the population takes a rare upside-down approach such as naming a person according to qualities contrary to what he really possesses.  For example, a bald man will be called “curly” while a tall man will be called “shorty”.  With high individualism, Australians are considered detached from extended groups such as extended families which include uncles, aunts and grandparents.  Privacy is very important to population.  Australians proved to protect equality across societal levels.  As a result, cooperation is easy to impose even if minority, poor or handicapped are in existence with majority.

 

 

3.    List five culture stereotypes or labels attached to people from this culture. How accurate are these labels?

 

German Australians are heavy drinkers.  Most of them see this as a habit of getting drunk.  This may connote rough behaviour towards others especially in public places.  Anglo-culture may see them as a threat to personal security.  The accuracy of this labelling is supported by the fact that German culture is high masculine and there can be higher tendency to undermine women rights or have conflicts with other men.  Also, Germans see life as complicated unlike Anglo-culture.  This can affect how the former approach lives on a short-tempered manner which can aggravate when get drunk.  However, back in Germany, it is not allowed to drink or get drunk late at night.  This indicates that the accuracy of heavy drinkers is contextualized on the ground that Germans are minimizing untoward behaviour or incidents as effects by being drunk.            

 

German Australians are very efficient.  This can run counter against the light-life mannered of Anglo-culture.  The accuracy of this label is that throughout its history Germany had produced scientists and philosophers of world-wide recognition.  Its means of transportation at home is also an indication that Germans wanted fast and effective resolution of everyday works.  The stereotype is minimized as Anglo-culture is basically also time-conscious.  In effect, in relative terms, the efficiency of German Australians is not far on front the pure Australians.  Also, in corporate and public projects, Germans dedicate ample time in planning which is in absolute terms not fast.  However, the efficiency comes in the implementation stage wherein the tasks that are carried is in continuum because of good blueprint of plan.          

 

Germans Australians have high regards to high status of living.  This is valid in various German institutions.  With regard to legal issues, discrimination of foreign companies for legal proceedings and complex laws is minimal in Germany.  In addition, intellectual property rights are well established and exercised in Germany than most of developed countries.  High tax rates are eminent in Germany as well as overregulation of labor market.  Germans maintain less resistance to change this government and legal structure.  Even in quality of their products and restriction of inferior goods are reflection of their tendency to prefer lifestyle that is full of quality.      

 

Germans Australians are arrogant.  They do not reflect the majority of the population who lives in middle income status and most of the time poverty.  As a result, they may not underestimate the living of some Anglo-culture as it is low quality.  In service places, an ideal product to Anglo-culture may seem overestimated to them and they are hard to please especially in the dimensions of quality.  Their appreciation to art and music is meticulous that the original and highly differentiated literature in Anglo-culture may not fill their expectations.    

Lastly, German Australians are violent-invaders.  This stereotype came from the connotation of Hitler in the bloodline as well as the creator of atomic bomb that is Albert Einstein.  This may be modified as if they are rascals and destroyer of peace in the Anglo-culture society.  In effect, a community dominated by Anglo-culture may impede the excellence that German Australians are showing in education, profession, religion and other institutions.  There is a fear that their acceleration in different fields may hamper the security of the community as it will be used for invasion in the future as it may be deemed necessary.            

 

4.    How do you think this cultural group is received and supported by wide community and society? You answer should address community attitudes, specialist services and social policy?

 

German Australians are subordinates to the Anglo-culture within Australia.  Dominance and subordination is synonymous to leader-follower scheme wherein the relationship is ideal to obtain the performance of one another’s societal functions in an effective and efficient manner.  The dominant imparts its decision-making and problem solving capabilities to uphold the welfare of people.  In return, subordinates serve the former and follow its conquest that precipitate to loyalty and respect.  The president who is widely respected by the citizenry, a husband who is loved and cared by his wife, and professors who are idolized by students are few of some dominance-subordination design in the society.

 

However, there can also be a possibility wherein the “ruler” (Anglo-culture) can have flat reception with the “ruled” (German Australian).  Dominant and subordinate individuals alike have similar bottom-line, which is death.  This provides disincentive to the ruler to abuse his power aside from good cause and remind him that such wrong doing would not last for a long time because of limitation in life.  On the other hand, people would tend to respect the ruler’s decision and abide the kingdom’s development projects to maximize their existence in the world and help improve the status of civilization keeping in mind that time ticks away from every crime or rebellion they would ensue against a fair dominant and elite.  Social order is thus seen thorough the mutual understanding and accepted vulnerability of the actors in the society giving rise to peace, and ultimately, prosperity.     

 

5.    Describe some potential conflict that might occur in the community relating to this cultural group, or that may already have taken place.

 

Causes of Failing Coordination

• Too much focus on departmental objectives
• Lack of macro perspective
• Prejudice towards others
• Personal differences
• Lack of trust
• Self protection

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PART 2: DEMONSTRATION OF CROSS-CULTURAL SKILLS

 

1.    Describe five interpersonal communication skills you would use to demonstrate cultural empathy with this cultural group?

 

            Turn-taking is the time when other parties other than the current speaker talks to convey sympathy, elaboration and other intentions related to the conversation (2000).  As turn-taking is pegged from cultures and languages, it results to problems on how to analyze the turn-taking effort of conversation participants.  Turn-taking can be formalized by personal initiative by the current speaker or it can be determined by the next speaker himself.  Turn-taking is also defined as the process of changing roles between the speaker and listener that potential problems such as giving respect to the former exist because the right to speak is halted.  In view of this, turn-taking signals or mechanisms should be inferred and not rely absolutely on features of natural conversation.              

 

One mechanism for turn-taking to take place is the overlap.  It is a method to keep conversation active without risking the eventuality that it may cease or lead to silence (1999).  It occurs when competitors speak simultaneously which can be cooperative at times especially when words of encouragement and elaboration are inserted.  Overlap can be initiated by either high involvement speakers or high considerateness speakers.  The former gives support even if it involves simultaneous speech while the latter is the position of the speakers when they consider others feelings.  Overlapping can lead to cultural misunderstandings when participants are in different genders because boys and girls grow-up in different cultures.

 

Verbal pauses are words that the speaker says during and until he finally thought of the next word to complete his statement (2005).  Alternatively, it can also include bridge words that can sound more formal but may cause confusion because bridge words can make the statement longer and less understandable.  However, when used between a well-renowned speaker and audience, pauses can undermine speaker’s status by sounding less intelligent that can reduce trust and other attributions.  In the contrary, when the speaker is aware of the use of pauses such as emphasizing mechanism and not simply a deterring mechanism, speaker time and the conversation itself can be optimal.

 

Holding a conversation requires a skill in order to for facilitator to have a grasp on an effective medium or conversation framework for the participants ( 2001).  One method of holding a conversation is passing-the-floor.  Passing-the-floor attempts to solve potential problems that may arise during the question-and-answer activities in a conversation where audience is dispersed in a number of sites ( 2001).  In effect, it is a formal technique required in large and off-shore conversation where main site among the several sites and presence master of ceremonies (MCs) on each sites are preconditions.  In its conduct, each site has its own conversation style (e.g. raising hands, standing, etc.) and outcomes will be consolidated by the main site.  In this regard, cultural problem may ensue when this is used by shareholders of a corporation located in different countries.  The rules of the main site may be seen by individual sites as defeating to their interest like avoiding too much questions or presenting numerical data.  

2.    Name some cultural communication issues that you would need an awareness of when working with people from this particular culture. In your answer, think about taboos, concepts of personal body space, language and political and economical history that are pertinent to this culture

 

Appearance

·         Conservative business dress.   

·         Preference on dark suits characterized by solid and clear shirts/ blouses.

·         Talking with a gum in the mouth is a sign of impoliteness.

 

Behaviour 

• Reserved individuality.
• Detail-oriented but not necessarily complex.  They are good in planning but require ample time.
• Do not prefer surprises as well as transactions in short notices even if these transactions can improve their present status.
• Do not expect commendation and praises because German ideology sees anything as normal and in good form.
• Time is of the essence in business and social events wherein reasoning of being late is generally not acceptable even if valid.

 

 

 

Communications 

• German has an inclination to talk over the phone but not to the point that big decisions are made.
• Titles are an indication of courtesy and one must speak full title to the person to avoid conflict or distrust. 
• Privacy is important especially for high-ranking people.

 

3.    What strategies might you use to engage with people from this culture if they were client group? (Example: make information about your service available in their community language.)

 

Application of ethics in every strategic decision

In definition, “ethics is a set of principles of right conduct.  It is a moral philosophy that conforms to standards of what is right or just in behavior” ().  The irony is that it has number of definitions but in sense, no theory or philosophy had really elaborate its meaning because it is basically based in norms, customs, values, culture and laws of a certain society.  There can never be universality as countries and other ethnic groups have differences.  Suffice to hear the word right and just and leave to the various societies, perhaps the majority, judgment of the succeeding individual actions, corporate strategies, government policies or international events.

 

In private corporations, decision-making plays a very important role in strategies especially its implementation.  Company’s overall vision and mission is applied in most of its huge and crucial undertakings usually executed by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) but lower-levels of management and their decision-making is the instrument used to spread and implement the goals of company.  There actions tend to affect the decision of CEO and as a whole, the fate of the company.

 

These aspects of unethical practices of the top managers of Enron caused the eventual fall of the company.  There is no question of there actions and decisions as being unethical because they constitute unfair treatment to employees who are not “money-based” but cannot be judged as underperforming, to the company who is voluntarily accept their decisions in the hope of achieving its goal and finally, the society because they created fraud and hid transparency.

 

Ethical practices of a person definitely influence his decision-making for the company.  Since the shareholders and even the CEO cannot monitor certain actions of its operational managers (especially in big and multi-national corporations), the latter is given freedom of choice and decision.  With this, decision-making must take into account common good and not individual interests.  Decision making is ethical if it is rational and able to weigh the benefits and costs of a certain action not only in the context of a company but also its “well-being, justice and sustainability” (2005) that will effect individuals, groups, government or even other nations   It is an ethical decision if it quoted responsibility in it.   

 

4.    What other services, workers, networks and resource could you use to assist you in your work with people from this culture?

 

The ultimate end of an effective communication is the achievement of the sender’s purpose in delivering the message.  Because of this, some controls and monitoring are needed to determine the receiver’s feedback.  In the corporate communication, the use of memo and other white paper announcements are evident, usually addressed to the supervisor.  Although, every company has the intention to get pro- or against feedback from employees to keep them involve, the lack of caution using the right people for a certain message, ineffective medium and ineffective feedback tools are the bottleneck for such feat. 

 

               It is then this purpose of the paper: to establish a communication process and method that will facilitate effective communication.  We need our employees to absorb and apply the same message and instruction we give to them.  By achieving this, we can be efficient and productive at work.  The result will be less individual mistakes, less delay (because an employee in a certain process is not adept with the rules or new instruction) and less contingency approach to solve the problem. 

            Since we can only suggest a briefing method within a certain corporate environment, supervisory powers and staff-level employee background, we should define the actors of the communication.  What company are we? Do we have open communication, democracy in our building? What is the extent of jurisdiction of our supervisors? How much they matter to employees? What is the jurisdiction of the team leaders? Their qualities and how do they become one? The condition of employees: passive or active, when it comes to their reaction to a certain announcement.  The view of the researcher-writer based on the information given is as follows:

 

1.        Company/ Top-level Management – Posses different departments that handles specific functions like personnel relations, accounting, etc. Give importance to employee development and involvement in the organization.  Preferred responses from employees through a controlled and likely formal medium.  Decentralized and gives liberty to managers and supervisors to decide within their technical jurisdiction.

2.        Technical Managers and Supervisors – Highly motivated and company goal-oriented.  Possess conceptual ability to look the organization as a whole.  Always searching for improvement.  Administer some administrative function, but more of a technical one because of the presence of the company human resource department to handle the former.  Have trust to the team leader’s abilities: both administrative and technical.  Knowledgeable of the other department’s functions and aware of other’s developments.

3.        Team Leaders – Have charisma and trust by the staff-level employees.  Responsible and have direct contact with employees at work.  Reports to managers and supervisors and discuss about employee-related issues. 

4.        Staff-level employees – Personal motives override the corporate ones. Seek for information that directly affects them (wages, change in shift, condition of work) or their specific job (new process, efficiency, areas to consider in case of evaluation).  Prefer more of direct contact with immediate supervisors, which in this case, the team leaders. 

 

5.    Describe how you might go about using an interpreter in an interview.

 

The interpreter should use functional approach in discourse

Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the context being used in its delivery (1991).  It intends to achieve meaning through observed situations where factors in discourse are considered like participants, setting, props, actions, higher level action, local/ global contexts and constructing contexts (1989;1997).  Formal approach to discourse requires rigorous and explicit terms, avoidance of vagueness and the audience should not fill or guess its meaning ( 1999).  On the other hand, functional approach to discourse is bounded by largely social context which make discourse analysis simpler and less tedious.  Initially, there is difference in methodology on how to handle discourse which could stem from its contents, participants and other important discourse factors.  

 

Formal approach necessitates logical features and special symbols to understand meaning correctly and prevent the risk of misinterpretation or any ambiguity (1999).  In contrast, such risk is already minimized and taken in functional approach because the social context serves as a guide to interpretation and the audience and communicator are aware its ramifications.  They are unified to come-up with a worthwhile meaning by using the social context in which they thoughts and actions are constrained.  Formal approach assumes that discourse is true (e.g. universally-accepted) which makes it complicated while functional approach is bounded to a certain group of people (e.g. a sample or subset of the universe).

 

In effect, formal approach to discourse is highly applied in written language and scientific matters while functional approach is inclined to solve oral interactions and culture-bound issues.  With this, their methodologies will be more compatible with the factors affecting discourse.  For example, a published academic book gives its audience ample time to conceive meaning thus a larger time can be spent in the reading activity.  However, a political speech during election campaigns is one-time situation that the dominant idea within the community should serve as the guide to the communication environment.  This makes formal approach suitable to complex genres while functional approach to straightforward ones (1990).

 

Implied in the differences of formal and functional approach to discourse is that their ability to interpret meanings is intended for specific purposes.  The former is intended to address meanings that will be true under any circumstances and in any possible worlds (1999).  However, the outcome does not have to be true on every possible meaning like “one plus three equals four” but the answer four cannot be confined to the meaning such as it is the largest prime number.  In the contrary, the latter is intended to address meanings that are likely or generally true to a certain society or culture.  It considers the dominating or even marginal way of life of participants whatever is allowable in the circumstances.  As a result, there is a need to dissect and understand the background of participants like ethnicity, gender, creed, professional role and social role not to seek objective of the formal approach (i.e. truth) but to incline language to a specific context.    

      

6.    What cross-culture strategies would you use to manage conflict arising with someone (or people) from this culture group interacting with other(s) from a different culture.

 

 

 

Using computer-based learning and interaction

Many rationales behind the exploration of an effective methodology on cultural literacy are reflected in several studies.  According to (2001) supported by (1987), cultural literacy is an ongoing and dynamic process that attaching certain findings under knowledge is inconsistent with the reality as interactions of people in never been static (e.g. there are conflicts, resolutions and evolutions of relationships).

 

In  (1990), it is found that there is positive relationship between cultural literacy and academic achievement among fifth graders using White, Hispanic and African-American samples.  In traditional view, cultural literacy is inferable in language courses.  However, in recent study of  (2002), a centralized approach to cultural literacy of Botswana samples led to lack of learner participation, gender bias and use of single language for multicultural society.  As a result, it is suggested that decentralization is necessary to accommodate cultural and ethnic diversity of students including reformation of single-language policy.

 

With respect to mimicking Computer-based Project in the proposed study especially the aspect of computer-generated communication between two-cultures,  (1981),  (1997) and  (1997) suggested that one's culture cannot be fully revealed without encounter with the other culture that can impose foreign meaning.  The World Wide Web is also powerful by offering efficient representation of reality and ability of communicators to forum including educational uses of technology in ability of querying, communication and construction ( 2001).  According to  (1992), using multi-media can improve student's cultural literacy.  One advantage is that it can reduce the time spent by teachers in classrooms and another is to provide student independence in setting their own pace, broadening the chance of topic repetition particularly complicated issues and transform learning experience into stimulating interactive design.

 

In addition, the design of Computer-based Project is based on theoretical and practical researches found in the findings of Bennett (1998),  (1997),  (1998) and  (1996).  It is infused with a series of systematic stages with the purpose of maximizing discovery and self-reflection.  In simple description, the design of Computer-based Project is embedded in five (5) steps: exploration of semantics, confirmation by film adaptations, interpretation by current events seen in news, observation of student responses, and theoretical analysis of such responses for findings/ conclusion. 

 

This system, however, is continuously upgraded which run consistent with the admonition of its creators () that cultural literacy is never static.  The meeting of what is really happening and studying them under theoretical lens can also add-up to the excellent design of Computer-based Project.  In aggregate, Computer-based Project views cultural literacy as something not taught rather experienced by students, mediated through other students and guided by teachers.

 

When it comes to student motivation, Computer-based Project is also compatible compared to traditional classroom lectures, examinations, researchers, memorization, etc.  In heuristic studies like that of  (1983), information involving formal and probability characteristics that tend to obligate a person was less regarded than the more natural, informal and easier way of cognition as similarity technique.  For example,  (1988) noted that "one of the principles that seem to be followed in cognition is that strategies reducing mental effort are preferred". 

 

PART 1-A: CUSTOMER SERVICE EXPECTATIONS

Service expectation	Essential	Desirable	Observation from customer contact
1. Affordable prices	ü		The prices of common furniture are quite cheap but the appliances are almost the same.
2. Convenience in location		ü	There is only one store in the vicinity near the customer’s home which is quite distant.
3. Free delivery	ü		There is a quota in order to get this benefit.  If a customer would only buy one piece of furniture, even if it is heavy, there will be no free delivery.
4. Bulk savings	ü		There are several items that come in a package which can save some dollars to the customer.
5. Knowledgeable salespeople	ü		The salesman that approached the customer knew the supplier, prices and stock availability but is not sure if they can lower the price from a bargain.
6. Friendliness		ü	The salesman is not friendly (e.g. does not smile) and highly concentrated to the details of the product
7. Convenience of store lay-out		ü	The products that the customer needed are located far behind the store.  The items in the front are the new and items for promotion.
8. Ease of payment		ü	The accepted the credit card but requires identification cards which the customer forgot on the time of payment.

 

 

PART 1-B: ANALYSIS OF SERVICE

Elements of Service	Comment
First Impressions Ease of contact Professional conduct Location	The salesman was formal which shows professional conduct but it is quite hard to know if he is just highlighting his skills or really serving the customer.  The location is quite distant that free delivery is necessary for satisfaction.
Communication ·         Information readily provided ·         Appropriate questioning to understand customer needs ·         Appropriate body language (if face-to-face)	The salesman is formal and is good about product knowledge.  However, his lack of friendliness and spontaneity made the conversation pale.  Also, his body language is in an arrogant stance.
Listening Did they listen to you How was this conveyed Did you feel satisfied that you were understood	The salespeople listened to my queries and address my request for illustrated dimensions of the furniture quite fast.  It is satisfying except the serious face of the salesman that mainly accommodated my visit.
Confidence Did you feel confident that your needs would be met Did you trust the information you were given	I think I got the information but it did not sink in completely as the salesman is seemingly a hostile person and not an approachable type.  In effect, my trust for the information had declined due to this impression.
Conflict negotiation If you had any objections, were these handled appropriately Were solutions/ options offered proactively	The joke I had given to the salesman to break the ice is not effective and h continued to have a straight face.  I cannot offer direct comment as he may felt that I am a bad customer.
Lasting impressions When you had concluded your contact, did you feel satisfied, confident and positive about the contact Would you return	I am quite dissatisfied with the behavior of the contact although he is good in product details.  I feel that I may not get a discount or free delivery.  In conclusion, I would return but I will have a different salesman.  One who is both informed and friendly.

 

PART B: BRIEFING PRO-FORMA (SCENARIO # 2)

Questions	Response prompts
What is the problem? List the main points.	The de Graff couple cannot be booked.  They do not appear in the system, the resort is fully-book, the receptionist cannot validate if the airline voucher is valid, and the couple had a hard time to prepare for the vacation that may be bound to cancellation.
How has it happened? Who was responsible?	The booking system of Castaway Resort cannot reflect that the de Graff couple had a reservation.  The responsible people are the IT specialists or the customer service representatives who are getting the booking orders.
How doe the customer feel about the problem?	Frustrated because they worked hard to organize the vacation only to find out that they may not enjoy it even faced bigger problems.
How does the customer expect the Customer Service Office to assist?	Initially, the office should give them a room to rest and probably a free food and drinks to reduce frustration.  The customer may also want to compromise other’s vacation for their own.  If this is not possible, the couple should stay in the room until the booking is free to accommodate them.  Within this time frame, service is free.

 

How should the notion of subculture best be characterized?

How should the notion of subculture best be characterized?

 

Introduction

            Accordingly, culture has been regarded as a structural shared value which results in reduced variability in a response to internal and external stimulus ( 1993). Herein, it is expected that shared cultural aspects among people will direct to similar people orientations. As has been stated, the structural value is signified through some underlying factors. Furthermore, while people anticipate commonality in terms of values structure, which is the groups of values reflecting specific motivational domain will stay constant and the relative essentialities of various aspects to specified cultural groups is predicted to differ. In this regard, cultural differences are being seen through these variations. Hence, the central issues then may focus to the suitable cultural groupings or subgroups to signify such motivational aspects variation as this relates to social aspects and results.

            Nonetheless, subculture is being defined as a subgroup or secondary group within a social context which reflect a shared pattern or model in the relatively significant placed in line with the so called motivational domains. Subculture is also regarded as a subdivision of a nationwide culture which consists of integration of social situation like ethnic, rural, regional and urban residence, background, religious organizations, class status, which forms or established a functional group and which has a consolidated effect on the participating person (1992). In this regard, subcultures may be established within specified societal organizations, which is primarily based on a unique shared history or even based on geographical experiences which have impacted the values of the said groups (1992).

            In different countries, different subcultures have been developed from the past and the present. For instance, in Britain, there exist different subcultures that have become a major part of British histories. Primarily, the main goal of this paper is to determine how to characterized subculture best. In addition, this also aims on comparing the conventional characteristics of subculture in Britain from past groups to the emerging subcultures in Britain in this generation.

 

Subculture in Britain

The beginnings of subcultural theory involved various theorists associated with what became known as the Chicago School. Though the emphasis of the theorists varies, the school is most famous for a conception of subcultures as deviant groups, whose emergence had to do with ‘the interaction of people's perceptions of themselves with others' view of them’ (1997). This is, perhaps, best summarized in  theoretical introduction to a study of(1955). For , subcultures consisted of individuals collectively resolving societal status problems by developing new values which rendered status-worthy the characteristics they shared:

One solution to status problems is for individuals who share such problems to gravitate towards one another and jointly to establish new norms, new criteria of status which define as meritorious the characteristics they do possess, the kinds of conduct of which they are capable. (1955).

For , the working class teenager experienced these shifts and fragmentations in direct, material, social, economic and cultural forms. But they also experienced, and attempted to ‘resolve’ them on the ideological plane. And it is primarily to this attempted ‘ideological solution’ that he attributes both the rise of, and the differentiation between, the different working class ‘youth subcultures’ of the period:

The latent function of subculture is this—to express and resolve, albeit “magically”, the contradictions which remain hidden or unresolved in the parent culture. The succession of subcultures which this parent culture generated can thus all be considered as so many variations on a central theme—the contradiction at an ideological level, between traditional working class puritanism, and the new ideology of consumption: at an economic level between a part of the socially mobile elite, or a part of the new lumpen. Mods, parkers, skinheads, crombies, all represent in their different ways, an attempt to retrieve some of the socially cohesive elements destroyed in the parent culture, and to combine these with elements selected from other class fractions, symbolising one or other of the options confronting it. (1972)

 Acquisition of status within the subculture entailed being labelled and, hence, excluded from the rest of society, something the group would respond to through its own hostility to outsiders, to the extent that non-conformity with dominant norms often became virtuous. As the subculture became more substantive, distinctive and independent, members would become increasingly dependent on each other for social contact and validation of their beliefs and way of life.

The themes of labelling and subcultural dislike of ‘normal’ society are also emphasized in  work which, among other things, is notable for its emphasis on the boundaries drawn by jazz musicians between themselves and their values as ‘hip’ and their audience as ‘squares’ (1963). The notion of increasing polarization between subculture and the rest of society, as a result of outside labelling, is developed further in relation to drug-takers in Britain by  (1971) and in relation to media moral panics surrounding mods and rockers by . For  the generalized negative images of subcultures in the mass media both reinforced dominant values and constructed the future form of such groupings (1972).

As mentioned, British has been encountered many changes in terms of forming subcultures. It is aid that subculture in Britain has been associated with groupings which are primarily based on spectacular styles such as mods, teds, skinheads, punks, motorbikes boys and others.  These past subcultures in Britain has been formed as a reflection of the position of mainly working-class young people, most especially young males in relation to the particular societal conditions of 1960s and 1970s Britain (1979; 1972). It is argued that in spectacular youth subcultures, the groups has functioned to resolve the contradictory societal position of working-class young people between the traditional values of a working-class ‘parent culture’ and a modern hegemonic culture of mass consumption dominated by media and commerce (1972).

Essentially, by forming subcultures characterized by argot and ritual, young people retained aspects of working-class culture, while their embrace of hedonistic consumption and emphasis on taste and style reflected their position within dominant capitalist society. Crucially though, their consumption, unlike that of the general public, was deemed to be characterized by active selection and appropriation - assigning to everyday objects new subversive meanings in their subcultural context (1979). Semiological interpretation of the overall styles and the subcultural norms with which they were deemed to be homologically aligned (1978), suggested that, as a whole, they functioned ‘magically’ to resolve contradictions and symbolically to subvert the dominant meanings of consumer culture (1972;1979). Hebdige sums up this perspective in relation to mods:

Thus the scooter, a formerly ultra-respectable means of transport was appropriated and converted into a weapon and a symbol of solidarity. Thus pills, medically diagnosed for the treatment of neurosis, were appropriated and used as an end-in themselves. The style they created, therefore, constituted a parody of the consumer society in which they were situated. The mod dealt his blows by inverting and distorting the images (of neatness, short hair) so cherished by his employers and parents. The mod triumphed with symbolic victories. (1979)

Consistent with materialist perceptions of the futility of resistance on a cultural level, however, the dominant forces of mass media and commerce, in  account, eventually would incorporate subcultural styles, strip them of any subversive meanings and sell them back to the general public (1979). As mentioned, another subculture which has been formed in Britain is the skinhead. Accordingly, the first skinhead movement which occurs in the late 1960s has been noted as a multicultural synthesis which has been established around music and faction. It is said that the first skinheads were the result of the mod subculture in Britain during the early years of 1960s. The mod was considered to be stylish, then, and obviously seen as a subculture which is dedicated to cultivating  and refining the right appearance, upwardly mobile and are composed of most young people whose parents belongs to white-collar reality of the banking and advertising industries. It is said that the subculture mod are also considered as music fans who are obsessed with dancing to soul music from American at all-night gatherings (1979).

During the 1960s, the divided implicit of the subculture mod scene, between the upper-class pretense and the working-class origins, between those subcultural revolutionary and the notable interests for boutique-owners as well as advertisers began to scatter. In addition, the mod subculture has become closer for commodification, the Carnaby-street trendy approach of swinging London. In addition, certain mods started to highlights the more proletarian factors of the look, trimming their hair shorter and changing dandified suits and luxurious shoes with heavy boots and jeans. Such no-frills type of mods or commonly known as hard modes anticipated the coming of the first skinheads. These subcultures have become the major focus of studies in the 60s and 70s.

Punk was perhaps the last major subculture in which there was a convergence of design, subcultural style and small innovative retail businesses. Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood's shop 'Sex' (later renamed 'Seditionaries'), set up in the Kings Road in the mid-70s, was one of the few which integrated popular street fashion with the music of the time.

Since punk the stylistic options among an increasingly selfreflexive and stylistically mobile youth have been greatly expanded with revivals of all the major subcultures occurring in the late 1970s and '80s. Punk itself reproduced the entire sartorial history of post-war working-class youth culture in cut-up form, combining elements which had originally belonged to completely different epochs. The wardrobes of past subcultural styles were exhumed, re-adapted and recombined in endlessly different combinations (1999)

As time passes by, these subcultures had been changing for the last 30 years. In addition, Britain also experienced the rise of the Britpop in the 1990s. This subculture has been influenced by the mods in 1960s, mod revival in the 70s/80s and other British rock music approach. The most famous technological development of the 1990s was the creation of the World Wide Web or the Internet. This advancement permits small subcultures to develop into large global online society. These include online games, internet forums. Internet shops, and chat rooms has been considered as some of the popular subcultures in the 1990s.

Because of the emergence of digital technology, a new subculture has been formed. And that is the subcultures of young people involving in digital technologies. Most young people have grown up with technologically based entertainment media in the form of television, video, teletext, arcade games, CD players, record-decks, mixers and samplers. Increasingly this entertainment technology is computer based. Indeed, the computer is becoming the all round home entertainment system, with a growth in the number of homes who have a CD-ROM drive, or even an Internet connection. The range of technologies aimed at the home market is ever expanding. New combinations of hardware such as the TVPC (CD player, TV and PC all in one unit) are now being marketed as an ideal package for this subculture and new software packages aimed at the home consumer appear on the market with almost weekly monotony—for example, photo discs enabling the user to store their holiday snaps on CD-ROM, and low cost image manipulation software such as Kai’s Power Goo. A number of software packages aimed at the educational market are available enabling the user to draw, paint, manipulate images and make simple animation or music tracks. Computer technology is now sold alongside puzzle games in toy shops, such as TOYS ‘Я’ US and alongside pens and paper in stationery shops and became one of the contemporary subcultures in Britain.

Retro style is part of a general trend in contemporary culture which ransacks various historical moments for their key stylistic expressions and then re-inserts and recombines them in current fashion. Clothing items are worn as though in quotation marks, their wearers self-consciously evoking some past, even at the risk of stylistic mismatch and incongruity. These references to past stylistic forms have taken on a kind of iconographic status in pop culture, evoking whole periods of social history, and have been used extensively in popular music and advertising (1995).

Traditionally, youth subcultures have been associated with particular symbolic sites where sub-cultural activities and meanings are played out. Conventionally youth has been located in 'the street' (1990). Today, most of the youth subcultures can be seen inside a concert hall, internet cafes and other indoor places.

 

Subcultures: Best Characterized

Subcultures are said to portray a unique shape and construction to make them more distinct from their ‘parent’ culture. IN addition, subculture must also give emphasis on specific and particular domains, process, values, activities and others that importantly make them unique from the wider groups. But, since they are sub-sets, there must also be significant things which bind and articulate them with the ‘parent’ culture (1972).

Hence, it can be said that subcultures can be best described or characterized in terms of the shape that it takes around the distinctive activities and ‘focal concerns’ of groups. In this regard, the characterization of subcultures can be loosely or tightly bounded. Some subcultures can be mere characterized strands or ‘milieux’ within the parent culture: they possess no distinctive ‘world’ of their own. Others develop a clear, coherent identity and structure. On the other hand, ‘subcultures’ (whether drawn from a middle or working class ‘parent culture’) can be characterized to have reasonably tight boundaries, distinctive shapes, which have cohered around particular activities, focal concerns and territorial spaces. When these tightly-defined groups are also distinguished by age and generation, we call them ‘youth subcultures ( 1979)’.

Youth subcultures form up on the terrain of social and cultural life. Some youth subcultures are regular and persistent features of the ‘parent’ class-culture: the ill-famed ‘culture of delinquency’ of the working-class adolescent male, for example. But some subcultures appear only at particular historical moments: they become visible, are identified and labelled (either by themselves or by others): they command the stage of public attention for a time: then they fade, disappear or are so widely diffused that they lose their distinctiveness. It is the latter kind of sub-cultural formation which primarily concerns us here. The peculiar dress, style, focal concerns, milieux, etc. of the Teddy Boy, the Mod, the Rocker or the Skinhead set them off, as distinctive groupings, both from the broad patterns of working-class culture as a whole, and also from the more diffused patterns exhibited by ‘ordinary’ working class boys (and, to a more limited extent, girls). Yet, despite these differences, it is important to stress that, as subcultures, they continue to exist within, and coexist with, the more inclusive culture of the class from which they spring. Members of a subculture may walk, talk, act, look ‘different’ from their parents and from some of their peers: but they belong to the same families, go to the same schools, work at much the same jobs, live down the same ‘mean streets’ as their peers and parents.

For example, some may argue that mods, Parkers, Skinheads, Crombies are a succession of subcultures which all correspond to the same parent culture and which attempt to work out through a series of transformations, the basic problematic or contradiction which is inserted in the subculture by the parent culture. So one can distinguish three levels in the analysis of subcultures: one is the historical, which isolates the specific problematic of a particular class fraction, secondly, the sub-system and the actual transformations they undergo from one sub-cultural moment to another, thirdly, he way the subculture is actually lived out by those who are its bearers and supports (Brake, 1980).

 

Conclusion

The succession of spectacular youth subcultures has shown particular, conspicuous, symbolic creativity in clothes. There is now a long and well-known list of youth subcultural styles, from the teddy boys and the mods, to the skins and punks, to chatters, emo, goth, online gaming and high-tech gadgets which have occupied the attention of sociologists, journalists and fashion commentators alike. The distinct styles of youth subcultures in Britain have been interpreted as symbolic solutions to age and class domination, and a means of marking out and winning cultural space for young people. Such styles have been lauded for their symbolic work in borrowing and transforming everyday objects or fashion components, high technological gadgets recoding them according to internal subcultural grounded aesthetics and demands.

While only a small minority of young people adopted the complete uniform of youth subcultures, large numbers drew on selective elements of their styles creating their own meanings and uses from them. Many subcultural groups became popularized, finding their way into mainstream working-class and middle-class youth culture. In this way, subcultures became a source of inspiration for the stylistic symbolic work and creativity of all young people. Punk, for example, stimulated a move back to straight-legged trousers, smaller collars and shorter hair amongst young people of all ages. The leggings/thermal underpants first worn by punk girls -which were originally cream and had to be dyed black -- were soon being made up new by young market-stall holders. By the summer of 1985 they were being produced in T-shirt cotton and a wide range of colours and had become a definitive fashion item for all women under the age of 40.

But fashion trends arise not only from the street -- though always in a dialectic with it. Punk, for example, emanated as much from the art-school avant-garde as it did from the dance halls and housing estates. Many of the stylistic innovators in youth subcultures had a firm stake in the commodity market themselves. Indeed, within most youth subcultures, young people have always been directly involved in the production and selling of clothes themselves from the past and involving in high technological gadgets like mobile phones, i-pods, laptops in the present. A whole economic infrastructure of entrepreneurial activity has accompanied all the youth style explosions, creating careers for many of those involved.

Since then, one of the most important trends in subcultures has been the rehabilitation and raiding of previous sartorial styles for raw material in young people's own, current symbolic work and creativity, stylistic and cultural expression. All in all, it can be concluded that subcultures can best be described or characterized as groups of individuals with different styles, aesthetic preferences, and ideologies.

 

CULTURE

Culture & Media

 

We look at all different meaning of word culture.Culture is it about who we are- so everyone has an opinion

(The word culture) came to mean, first, ‘ a general state or habit of the mind; having close relations with the idea of human perfection. Second, it came to mean the general state of intellectual development in a society as a whole’. Another meaning of culture is body of the arts’.  The 1960s was a period of change for Australia. The ethnic diversity produced by post-war immigration, the decline of the United Kingdom and the Vietnam War (to which Australia sent troops) all contributed to an atmosphere of political, economic and social change

On September 11th, 2001 much of the western world turned against Islam as they never had before. In the years that followed 911, the world witnessed the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq; events that have helped turn parts of the Muslim world against the western world.

When comes to media in particular ethnic community has impact on their lives due to  terrorist attacked happened. They trying to give negative view on culture( Islam) so we think that what their give us information regard this religion then we think they’re bad people so we starting getting hating them, however the media tells us things that are true however they do not tell us everything. We are usually only shown certain sides or aspects of things and other stuff is left out. Therefore we adapt to a single sided view of different cultures based only on what is covered by the media. if we were told everything we would probably have different opinions than those that are made per the media

 

The contribution that media portrayals make towards stereotyping, and the impacts

this has on local communities, was explored from many angles. The adverse

influence of the media was associated with a disproportionate number of negative

stories about different cultural groups, the undue emphasis of certain negative

terms linked with cultural groups, and in some cases the inaccurate use of

evidence.

The media adversely influences people’s views about different cultures, affecting

perceptions of Australia as a nation.

 

 

MANAGEMENT OF FAMILY BUSINESS IN CHINESE CULTURE

MANAGEMENT OF FAMILY BUSINESS IN CHINESE CULTURE

 

 

            Management is a prerequisite in the running a business. It is necessary to ensure that the business is being run properly, budgets are being used to the right supplies, human resources are properly trained, the freedom of the company from risk, and so on. Management is basically a strategy to make the business run effectively. It is a set of principles to manage an organization. While organization refers to the combination of the necessary human beings, materials, tools, equipment, working space and appurtenances, brought together in systematic and effective correlation, to accomplish some desired object, management is the force which leads, guides and directs an organization in the accomplishment of a pre-determined object ( and , 2003). However, many factors determine effective management and one of them is culture. Managing a business to integrate within a specific culture might be difficult since customers have a different belief system, different norms, morale and religion. For instance, there are cases of foreign companies in China that are being managed by Westerners to ensure that the company will retain its identity even in a foreign land. However, those managers usually face the problem of culture within the company. On the other hand, local management of foreign company in China may well know how to manage their fellow citizens and might be able to handle sensitive cultural issues. But on the negative side, they may face the problem of not being able to adopt and uphold the Western management style of the company.  and (2002) stated that differences in national culture influence not only the entry mode but also the perceived difficulty surrounding the integration of foreign personnel into the organization. Furthermore, management styles are tempered by cultural characteristics ( and , 2002). The interest of this study is to identify the management strategies of Chinese family businesses and its significance with the Chinese culture. The aim of the study is to identify how culture influences the management strategies or the strategic management practice of the family company.

 

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

 

            The main aim of the study is to identify the management styles of family businesses within the Chinese setting. This will be achieved by asking them to answer a comprehensive questionnaire that should include Chinese traits of management control. The plan is to be able to identify if Chinese family businesses take into consideration the Chinese culture and implement them in their management styles. It will also be identified later on the elements of the Chinese style of management they are using.

            The general objective of the study is to be able to contribute in the field of international management research, specifically in the issue of culture. Culture has long been an issue in international management and has been the subject of many researches. This objective can be achieved by completing the study consistently and carefully. On the other hand, the specific objectives of the study are to prove the following statements:

 

Ø      Chinese business companies implement management practices that are in tune with the Chinese culture. Chinese businesses still use superstitious beliefs because of the belief that they will bring good luck.

Ø     National culture plays an important role in shaping effective management control and approach of a firm operating.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

            The study will be a significant contribution in the study of culture in the international business management setting. One of the possible main contributions that the study can give in the subject is that it can identify the advantages of incorporating Chinese culture to the management of family business. By sampling Chinese family companies, the study may prove that the culture of the person plays a huge role in that person’s management preference. This study will further strengthen the facts that support the relationship between culture and international management.

Another possible contribution that the study can give is that it can enforce and emphasize the importance of shaping management practice to the culture of the country within which the company operates. Possible theories and confirmations may be discovered in the study. It may also stumble upon new problems and hypotheses that require additional research. This study may challenge other researchers to further confirm the findings for stronger support and evidence to the hypotheses.

 

 

 

 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

 

Initially, the first theory that may support the aims of this study is ’s (1980) four value dimensions, which explain differences among work-related value patterns and affect the structuring and functioning of organisations. The four dimensions are the following:

Ø      Large versus small power distance. Large power distance is the extent to which the members of a society accept that power in institutions and organisations is distributed unequally; while small power distance is the extent to which members of a society or organization accept that power is distributed fairly as employees are free to participate (, 1997).

Ø      Strong versus weak uncertainty avoidance. Strong uncertainty avoidance means the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity, which leads them to support beliefs promising certainty and to maintain institutions protecting conformity; while weak uncertainty avoidance is the degree to which members tend to be relatively tolerant of uncertainty and ambiguity and require considerable autonomy and lower structure (, 1995).

Ø      Individualism versus collectivism. Individualism is the preference for a loosely knit social framework in society; collectivism stands for a preference for a tightly knit social framework.

Ø      Masculinity versus femininity. Masculinity is the preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material success; while femininity refers to a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak and the quality of life.

According to ’s analysis for China, the Chinese rank lower than any other Asian country in the Individualism (IDV) ranking, at 15 compared to an average of 24 (, 2003). This may be attributed, in part, to the high level of emphasis on a Collectivist society by the Communist rule, as compared to one of Individualism (, 2003).

China is proven to be a collectivist society (, 1995). Chinese are generally willing to give priority to the goals of the collective over their own personal goals, and emphasize their connection to the members of these collectives. Furthermore, they focus their trust and solidarity toward the norms of the members of their collectives, also called ingroups, and are often distrustful of outgroups. The Chinese believes that individualism connotes selfishness, a lack of concern for others, and an aversion to group discipline, whereas collectivism is understood to affirm the solidarity of the group ( & , 1994).

METHODS

A hypothetico-deductive comparative study approach will be used for the current research. The research design for the study is descriptive as it aims to present current facts about the management style of Chinese family business and the roles that Chinese culture play on them. A descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study (, 1994). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. (, 1970) In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research (, 1994).

            The hypothetico-deductive approach will be compatible with the study because it can address very well the independent and dependent variables within the problems. The independent variable in the study is the Chinese family business management, while the dependent variable is Chinese culture. Basically, it is not only the businessman’s view that will be compared, but also which type of management style mostly preferred by the family. Hypothetico-deductive method allows the research problem to be conducted in a very specific and set terms ( & , 1992). Besides, a quantitative research plainly and distinctively specifies both the independent and the dependent variables under investigation (, 2002). It also follows resolutely the original set of research goals, arriving at more objective conclusions, testing hypothesis, determining the issues of causality and eliminates or minimises subjectivity of judgment ( & , 1996). Further, this method allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of research subjects (, 2002). Finally, it provides achieving high levels of reliability of gathered data due to i.e. controlled observations, laboratory experiments, mass surveys, or other form of research manipulations (, 1970). However, its disadvantage is that it may not be able to squeeze out enough opinions from the respondents as the statements are already limited within the questionnaire. The respondents will only be asked to tick the level of their agreement or disagreement. For this matter, it will be ensured that the questionnaire will be designed carefully and pre-tested before the actual testing.

 

The Questionnaire

 

            The questionnaire will be originally constructed and developed by the researcher with reference on the Hofstede’s cultural dimension values discussed in the theoretical framework segment of this paper. The paper will be divided into three sections. The first section will intend to acquire the demographic profile of the respondents. The second part of the questionnaire will intend to acquire their level of agreement on preference to management control and style. Finally, the third part will acquire their level of preference on management.

It should be noted that the second and third part will not be openly described as management styles and control of Chinese family business companies; instead they will be simply labelled as section 2 and 3. This is to control the bias that might arise once they know what the sections stand for. In this way, they will fill up the questionnaire without being conscious of their values and beliefs. Thus, the link between management preference and culture will be acquired more clearly and precise without bias. Bias is hoped to be revealed later when their answers will be analyzed.

The purpose of the set of attitude statements is to determine the level of agreement or disagreement using a five-point Likert scale. In the Likert technique, the degree of agreement or disagreement) is given a numerical value ranging from one to five, thus a total numerical value can be calculated from all the responses. (Underwood, 2004) The equivalent weights for the answers will be:

Range                                                            Interpretation

            4.50 – 5.00                                                    Strongly Agree

            3.50 – 4.00                                                    Agree

            2.50 – 3.49                                                    Uncertain

            1.50 – 2.49                                                    Disagree         

            0.00 – 1.49                                                    Strongly Disagree

 

Samples

 

 

            Convenience sampling will be used in the study to avoid conflicts in the schedule of the students and to save time for the study. Questionnaires will be personally given to conveniently selected immediately available respondents. The target number for the samples is 4 Chinese family businesses. The criterion for the respondents is that they should be authentic Chinese family business operating within 6 months of more.

 

Results

 

 

            Results will be acquired by the tabulating the data collected using SPSS software. Demographic data, Chinese management preference data, Chinese cultural data will be analyzed with the use of ANOVA. Then, data will be compared also with ANOVA.

 

 

References:

The Movies Central Station (1998) and City of God (2002) and the Popular Culture in Brazil

The Movies Central Station (1998) and City of God (2002) and the Popular Culture in Brazil

 

Introduction

The film is a masterpiece tackling the most controversial beliefs regarding life and reality (or even abstract thoughts). Truly, this makes the film even more compelling. It presented claims and arguments that question the grounds of man’s existence as well as the possibilities of a multi-dimensional world. It wittingly disrupted the distinction between fact and fantasy as the movie transcended the audience to cross socially and culturally defined beliefs. The movie lures the viewers to think outside the confined notions of reality and existence by illustrating possible impossibilities.

Even though film do not have an interactive audience in terms of acting as compared to theatre (2001), it could be said that there are billions of people who watch films. They find their personalities in the portrayals of the characters and relate their life experiences to the plot of the particular movies. Also, they empathize and sympathize with the fate of the characters. Viewers delight when the characters in which they can associate themselves with are in good condition after a series of hardships and troubles. They are distressed when the character they adore dies or loses the fight ( 1990). These are among the several reasons on why viewers who see the influences behind and surrounding filmmakers can more clearly and fully understand why films are presented in such ways.

In this epoch of globalisation and modern technology, it is apparent that the need of the mainstream film audience is constantly changing and demanding. The viewers are no longer constrained with what they see on the screen but they also possess enough knowledge to comprehend and even argue with the messages that the medium provide. As the world develops, the processes inherent to humans also change. Movie viewing and its related processes are not left off. Thus, today’s viewers already know what makes a good or bad film, or ‘smart’ or ‘dull’ film basing on their predetermined set of standards and guided with their own knowledge on what constitutes a great cinematographic masterpiece.

This paper discusses how the directors of the films City of God (2002) and Central Station (1998) portrayed popular culture under globalisation perspective. Also, it aims to identify any remaining memory of Cinema Novo – a movement among Brazilian filmmakers in the second half of the 20^th century and guided with the principle "a camera in the hand and an idea in the head".

 

City of God (Cidade de Deus): Brief Facts

 

- Fight and you'll never survive…

Run and you'll never escape.

 

City of God is a story of place, Cidade de Deus, a poor housing project started in the 60's that became one of the most dangerous places in Rio de Janeiro by the beginning of the 80's. The story was related by Buscapé () yet he is not the real protagonist of the film. He is not the one who makes the story moves on. He is not the one who makes the decisions that will determine the main chain of events. Nevertheless, not only his life is attached to what happens in the story but it is also through his perspective of life that we understand the humanity of a world apparently condemned to endless violence (2002). The film was directed by Fernando Meirelles.

 

Central Station (Central do Brasil): Brief Facts

                                                            - He was looking for the father he never knew.

She was looking for a second chance.

 

            This film is about a poignant journey of a former school teacher – Dora (), who make her living through writing letters for illiterate people, and a young boy – Josué (), whose mother has just died, in search for the father he never knew. The film’s title was derived from its local, the main train station, Central do Brasil. It is a road film shot in Rio de Janeiro and the sertão of northeast Brazil (2005). The film was directed by Walter Salles.

 

Both films were selected to represent Brazil in the Academy Award Best Foreign Film category ( 2005). The worldwide exposures of these films in several international film festivals brought home sweet laurels for the country. In other areas where these films gained prominence, the lasting effect is plain and absolute. It could be said that these films are perfect illustrations of the real occurrences that are hidden in the middle of impoverish areas. The exposition of the reality is seen on the eyes of an artist and for the sake of art. However, the symbolic messages being relayed by such films bring awareness on what is really happening in the popular culture of people in the epoch of globalisation particularly in Brazil.

 

Globalisation

Globalisation in its literal sense is a social change, an increase in connections among societies and their elements due to, among others, the explosive evolution of transport and communication technologies ( 1996). The term is applied to many social, cultural, commercial and economic activities. Depending on the context it can mean, it can be: (a) closer contact between different parts of the world (globalisation of the world, global village), with increasing possibilities of personal exchange and mutual understanding between "world citizens", (b) or (economic globalisation), free trade and increasing relations among members of an industry in different parts of the world (2000).

Globalisation technique in film analysis is the application of the concepts related to globalisation. This technique is general in scope and offers an extensive range of application. Thus, film critics must determine the extent of application of the concepts of globalisation in connection to the content and interpretation of film’s real meaning. Modern film critics today ideally use globalisation approach to persuade viewers of different origins to watch a specified movie. The universal applicability of the film’s theme is the basic element of analysis.

Popular Culture in City of God and Central Station

Generally, film is a medium of a “broader global patterns and frameworks, especially the communication industry as an integrated interacting whole” (1997). It provides a giant mirror that serves as a reflection of the values, the half-truths, and the ideals of the society and its people (Whetmore, 1997). Universal emotions such as fear, love, disappointment, etc. have been experienced by people are shown in films – yet artistically presented. It could be a total ruin, complete love, paralyzing fear, or savage violence. Through film, it blows up these emotions until they become “larger than life” ( 1997). Because of film’s popularity and universality, many people use films as an agent of communication, education, learning, and entertainment. The feeling of audience and resemblance of existence is the basic element of cinema without which there is no art of filmmaking. The complex, artistic whole and elements are facilitated by a number of linkages with the artistic cultural experiences of the society (1994). Film is an externalization of what is real in life. As stated earlier, people relate and learn from it. It is a medium of entertainment, communication, and instruction. Also, viewers resort to movies as means of diversion and amusement.

On the other hand, film is used as a means of symbolic exposition of the ill-troubles of the society. In the films City of God and Central Station, the manifestation of societal problems and consequences that are abounded were shown together with their effects in the lives of people – direct or indirect. The makers of these films showed the popular culture of Brazilian people and how do they cope up and deal with such.

The debate on the nature of the popular already pacified over the decades. This is due to the emerging conventions in filmmaking and its whole surrounding industry. The introduction of innovative mechanisms not only on the theoretical applications but also to the practices paved way to more development in the worldwide cinema. In Brazil, according to  (1995) the idea of popular cinema was introduced in the early 60s and was resuscitated in 1974 by Nelson Pereira dos Santos’s “Manifesto for a Popular Cinema”. This was written to come with the release of his Amuleto de Ogum. The manifesto promotes the affirmation and defence of Brazilian popular culture through cinema. The popular culture in Brazilian cinema is defined as the spontaneous cultural expression of people ( 1995). This popular culture is seen on the vast marginalized majority of the Brazilian population. As mentioned by dos Santos, there is natural importance to celebrate this culture because “it is different from other superficial, elitist cultural forms that follow antiquated, colonized models”.

In City of God, the popular culture was expressed to defend popular political ideas. As to this case, the political convention often appears sporadically, as mere consumer objects isolated from their cultural, social, and filmic environment. There are many features in the plot that becomes clear only when discerned across a large body of ideas. City of God highlights the diversity and richness of illuminated areas like the image of Brazil as exposed by Hollywood films. It is a fact that Brazil is a prolongation of the west, and Brazilian cinema is traces its roots in western culture ( 1995). The cinema in Brazil witnesses and describes many national vicissitudes. Thus, the director of the film City of God portrayed popular culture as a part of history and national identity.

In the period of globalisation, the history and national identity are merged with foreign attributes. Due to the intervention of various factors and forces, the original features of a certain culture are mixed up with some elements of a foreign culture. In City of God, the director showed the relationship of popular culture and globalisation in the encounters present throughout the film’s narrative. If taken part by part, there are numerous instances that depict how the world and its people cope up with the challenges of staying alive. In terms of national identity, City of God is good for anything for it tells the story of the hidden reality and helps people to finally take a look at "God's" town, to those who live in the midst of violence and on the edge of the law. And so, people can look at themselves: Brazilians... the outlaws (  2002).

Conversely, the director of Central Station presented popular culture in a manner that is not limited in Brazil alone. According to its director Walter Salles, it depicts how industrialization created a huge wave of internal migration that, in turn, brought chaos to the cities, unprepared to accommodate so many new arrivals (). He added that "Central do Brasil" aims to talk about this country searching for its own roots. In the perspective of globalisation, Central Station was a struggle to discover, rediscover, and protect the own heritage of Brazil. Although some migrant principles, practices and individuals are affecting the established history, it is apt that the Brazilian community must protect its national identity. Similar to City of God, it is also a quest of history and identity – both on self and national aspects. According to  (1999), “You not only will be moved, but will realized that there is a different Rio, that we always are shown as glittering with carnivals and not the poverty and squalor of some of its regions.” The film brings new understanding to the human race and culture.

The processes and practices of globalisation truly affect the recent lives of people. With this belief, Central Station and City of God are presented using the idea of semiotics in globalised form. Thus, both films illustrate Brazilian popular culture depending on the sensibilities of the viewers. Interestingly, Central Station and City of God are comparatively good films for they brought gratification to viewers, artistic in their own sense, mentally and socially challenging, commercially viable, and engaging to the known standards of film production. The viewers differ in taste and perception of what is a good or bad film. What is a good film? A clear purpose, good script, unity of elements and technical presentation, commercial viability, and entertainment value constitutes a good film. The presence of a purpose in creating a certain film is the most basic consideration that a filmmaker must bear in mind. What is his/her intent – to inform, entertain, earn, etc.? With the identification of the specific intention, the filmmaker will have a clearer visualisation of the next steps to complete the entire process. A well-written, researched, and prepared script equates to a good story and theme. The universality of the theme may serve as a unifying agent in a wide array of viewers. To have a satisfactory crafted film, there is the presence of unity in terms of its elements and technical superficialities or presentation. Since filmmaking is not just an art but also a form of business, it must be commercially viable and profitable. Lastly, whatever the intent is, the entertainment value of the film must be highly sustainable. As an example, the classic Steven Spielberg’s E.T. (Extra Terrestrial) released in 1982 is considered a good film due to the fact that it convened the standards identified above.

The portrayal of the directors of what are a mind-boggling challenge. In this aspect, mass culture is trying to copy the cultural forms of advanced capitalist nations. Also, popular culture as the culture of the oppressed, subaltern classes that creates an imaginary and ideal future is under obstruction. Historically, the Brazilian popular film has provided a space for the expression of the cultural values of Brazil’s lower classes (2004). In both films, City of God and Central Station, the distinct identity of the Brazilian environment is the viewpoint of popular experiences that provide access to different forms of cultural expression, rather than as simply mass manipulation. The cultures of the marginalized people are categorically defined in different ways yet intercede into one adjacent idea – coping up. Poverty is the common denominator that dictates the people’s way of life. For survival is very important, the individual desire to get even with the harshness of living in the shanty area (in City of God) and the unknown (in Central Station) is manifested in the people’s own ways of doing things. On anthropological point of view, focusing on the way film uses cultural practices that exist prior to or outside the mass media is palpable. The thought of national identity in films links with the past and with a different kind of popular culture. In terms of national identity,  (2004) has argued that Brazilians are relatively sure of what they are not, but struggle to agree on a definition of what they are.  has said that this notion of the ‘popular’ arose as a consequence of the emergence of the culture industry and a market of symbolic national goods in Brazil since 1970s. Since then, the ‘popular’ in Brazil has ceased to be first and foremost linked to the traditional cultural forms of the popular classes or the project of popular liberation, but instead to the products of the culture industry (1988 , 2004).

The exposition of the directors in relation to popular culture and globalisation was still connected with the Cinema Novo movement. Cinema Novo shares with Soviet film in the 1920s, Italian Neo-Realism, and the French nouvelle vague, a penchant for theorizing its own cinematic practice (1995). Relating this three film movements to Cinema Novo, they represent more than a simple parallel and constitute concrete historical influences as evidenced in frequent allusions by the Brazilian directors. Furthermore, the unusually close link between theory and practice in Brazil derives as well from a number of other convergent factors like the generally abstract and theoretical bent of intellectuals in Latin countries.

Guided with the principle "a camera in the hand and an idea in the head", both films are the product of a keen observation of an artist eyes as well as idea in the head then eventually recorded in a camera. City of God and Central Station presents facts, realities, and other existing incidences about Brazil and its people in general. These things alone can explain the connection of Cinema Novo and its memory.

Moreover, people in different habitat of meanings perceive a variety of implication in the same creative work and their perceptions of meaning tend to change as the time passes by – may it be in terms of symptomatic meanings or ideology (explicit or implicit) ( 1999). These meanings are to some extent relative, but a film sets parameters to interpretations of such, and some of these interpretations are vulnerable by members of the audience. Meanwhile, film analysis and criticism plays one principal purpose – to evaluate the overall quality of a particular film. In today’s contemporary standards, it could be theorised that the presence of award-giving institutions are helpful to viewers and film related people especially in determining the aspects that needs further development and the parts that need to be maintained. Award-giving bodies qualify or can also intensify the views of more legitimate and credible film critics. Like all mass media, film has two component parts that serve as basis in film analysis – the form and the content (1997). These alone may determine how directors may portray the idea they want to incorporate in their films (like popular culture).

All in all, the concept of film and its audience is very essential to every individual that consider film as a portrayal of reality. However, today’s film industry is facing several great challenges that are headed for radical transformation (1998). Like the film itself, the industry and its people will undergo further dimensions in terms of technological approaches and developments. The Brazilian cinema is one of the most active and widely respected in Latin America. It may constantly continue its intelligent and innovative means of illuminating popular culture amidst the era of globalisation and international cooperation with traces of the memory of Cinema Novo that remains to be one of the biggest leaps in the country’s film history.

 

 

Chinese and European Civilizations in the Crusading History

OBJECTIVES

As a person with knowledge of Chinese and European civilizations, the author has always brought up to his superiors the viability of strategy formation regarding the analysis of these topics and at times fail to understand the reasons or logic behind certain strategic implementations imposed on it.

By delving into this project paper, the author intends to have better insights into how the role of the Chinese and European civilizations in the Crusading history was thought up, formulated and then imparted down. The author hopes to have an in-depth understanding as to how these roles enabled the Chinese and European civilizations to compete effectively and profitably in that era of internationalization where competition was extremely intense.

In order to reinforce the learning objectives, two key focal issues were focused upon i.e. innovation and diversity. Innovation was discussed with regard to the roles of the Chinese and European civilizations in the Crusading history where they were renowned for their developmental capabilities to constantly innovate. Diversity came under strategic thinking and formation as the author considered the diverse culture, political climate, economic surroundings, social environment, technological settings, government policies and legal systems in order to better understand these civilizations.

EXECUTIVE BRIEF

This essay utilized the Chinese and European civilizations as the models to review their previous roles in the Crusading history and how they dealt with critical situations. From the analysis, key trends in the Chinese and European civilizations were then identified, how they worked and its effectiveness in dealing with critical situations was ascertained. The paper then moved on to assess the Chinese and European civilizations with regard to their suitability to critical situations in the Crusading history, during which the internal capabilities of these roles in relation to the strategy being followed by the Chinese and European civilizations was determined also. An overall analysis of the performance and effectiveness of the Chinese and European civilizations’ roles in the Crusading history was also conducted to assess and compare the capabilities of these roles with those of others. Gaps in the capabilities and environment were then identified.

Finally, several choices of strategies to improve the educative roles of modern historians in exposing the role of Chinese and European civilizations in the Crusading history as effective means in critical situations were recommended and evaluated in terms of appropriateness to the issues reviewed, feasibility in carrying out the options and acceptability within the key stakeholders and decision makers. Several key implementation issues related to managing strategic change were also addressed as well.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

The Chinese and European civilizations that existed in the Crusading history (11^th – 13th century) can be best remembered for their efficient and effective implementation of the policies and tasks necessary to satisfy their citizens, workers and soldiers. Their leadership almost always focused on the careful management of the processes involved in the production and distribution of their products and services.

More often than not, ordinary historians don't really have the capabilities to access the roles of Chinese and European civilizations in the Crusading history. Instead, these historians engage in activities that various schools of history typically associate with the Chinese and European civilizations. These activities include the researching of the impacts of the great Chinese and European emperors and rulers as well as their contribution to history.

However, the role of Chinese and European civilizations in the Crusading history deals with all operations done within the 11^th -13^th century. Activities such as the management of government, the control of states, logistics and evaluations are often related with the Chinese and European civilizations. A great deal of emphasis lies on the efficiency and effectiveness of processes. Therefore, the roles of the Chinese and European civilizations in the Crusading history include the analysis and management of internal processes.

 

Political Trends

During the 11^th – 13th century of the Crusades, Chinese civilization experienced electoral and political transitions and crises.  There were at least four political trends that emanated from these political events. These were: (a) the cry for democracy and reforms; (b) increased popular and local-level assertiveness; (c) greater public accountability; (d) re-definition of the concepts of power and politics. Also, the forms of political economies have slowly shifted from a bipolar (big government-big business) to a tri-polar structure (authorities - private sector – civil society).

            On the part of the European civilization, the implementation of the Free Trade Area, or FTA, which laid out a comprehensive program of regional tariff reduction, was continuously implemented in phases through the 11^th -13^th century. Over the course of the next several years, the programs in tariff reductions were made broader. Efforts to eliminate non-tariff barriers and develop common product certification standards were initiated. In addition, European countries also were able to formulate framework agreements for the intra-regional liberalization of trade in services. Industrial complementation schemes meant to encourage intra-regional investment were also approved .

Social/Cultural Trends

With the rise in the middle to upper-middle class households in certain countries within Europe in the 11^th -13^th century, there exists a strategy mismatch for not considering the potential for consumer market.

There have also been social and cultural trends that have been evident in China within the 11^th -13^th century. These include: (a) the irreversible rise of civil society among Chinese provinces; (b) the rise of civil society blends perfectly with a tri-polar structure of political economy; (c) the increase in the roles of intellectuals; and (d) the beginning of a period of introspection.

The Crusading Wars (11^th – 13^th century)

In lieu of the present interpretations of most historians regarding the role of the European and Chinese civilizations in the Crusading history, there have been significant visions of learning that evolved. A majority of these learning visions are based on the idea that the role of the European and Chinese civilizations in the Crusading history was a social process where knowledge was denied instead of being acquired passively. The role of the European and Chinese civilizations in the Crusading history, then, was transformed into an interactive process. The interaction was being verified through the help of the participants in the role of the European and Chinese civilizations in the Crusading history such as the Chinese and the European people themselves. In this framework, the role of the European and Chinese civilizations in the Crusading history meant the continued guidance and support of the active process in repulsing the Muslims and capturing major cities from their hands. Obviously, this called for an intensive and phased warfare strategy.

When in the active pursuit of its role in the Crusading history, the interaction of the European and Chinese civilizations with their major allies formed an integral part towards its success. Collaboration was a strategic method used by the European and Chinese civilizations and their allies during the Crusades. Through this approach, the European and Chinese civilizations learned the strengths and weaknesses of their Muslim enemies from their allies, and along the process imitated their warfare techniques. In the process, the European and Chinese civilizations were able to obtain the chance to see their role in the Crusading history in a different aspect and therefore be able to take alternatives into consideration. The relative effectiveness of this approach was determined with the capability of the European and Chinese civilizations to continuously challenge their pre-acquired knowledge by trying to adapt to the interpretations of their allies.

Aside from the allies and the Muslims, the different resources for warfare belong to a third category of factors. Moreover, the role of the European and Chinese civilizations in the Crusading history has shown signs of significant growth over the past years because of the interests of many historians. Consequently, obtaining knowledge regarding this matter becomes more complicated. This is because the transformation of all this information into knowledge requires the public to possess the appropriate reference frameworks. But historians can certainly help the public transform information into valuable knowledge.

ANALYSIS

It is interesting to know the basic innate characteristics of the European and Chinese civilizations which contributed towards the development of their role in 11^th -13th century of Crusading history.

·        Mental Stability

Mental stability was crucial especially in the pursuit of the correct decision as well as the management and development of the processes accompanying it. It was important for European and Chinese leaders during the 11^th -13th century of Crusading history to remain updated with the latest developments in the Crusade to be able to stay aware and knowledgeable in all issues.

·         Performance and Credibility

The victories of the European and Chinese civilizations during the 11^th -13th century of Crusading history came as a result of well-planned strategies and warfare activities. The strong performance of their armies in the Crusades could also be linked to the effective strategic planning and human resource mobilization of the European and Chinese leaders. Thus, their civilizations’ credibility increased as their performance in the Crusades became better.

·        Planning and Strategy Formation Capabilities

Planning and strategy formation created the need for the European and Chinese civilizations to become aggressive especially in their role in the Crusading history. This was because their role in the Crusading history was critical for their continued popularity and existence.

·        Decision-making abilities.

Upon arriving at the correct decision or choice, the European and Chinese civilizations now gained confidence in their ability to make critical decisions or choices especially in their role in the Crusading history, where their integrity was put on the line. Thus, the European and Chinese civilizations now searched for even more challenges and opportunities where it could further enhance its decision-making abilities regarding the Crusades.

·        Holistic Mindset of Crusade Issues

Through the exposure to various puzzling issues in the 11^th – 13^th century Crusades, the European and Chinese civilizations along the process were able to develop a holistic mindset regarding the Crusade issues surrounding them. The European and Chinese civilizations now became keen observers of the truths and lies surrounding the Crusading issues being tackled, instead of relying on mere hearsays. The continuous pursuit of the truth behind the puzzling issues enabled the European and Chinese civilizations to consistently practice and enhance a healthy and holistic mindset which made it difficult for detractors to give influence. Because of this holistic approach, the European and Chinese civilizations were able to effectively play their role in the Crusading history and continued to maximize this potential in the succeeding years

CONCLUSION

The results of the analysis carried out on the role of the Chinese and European civilizations in the 11^th -13th century of Crusades indicated very significant effects, even amidst the threats of unrest. Therefore, we could conclude that these roles could still be expected to be exposed by modern historians up to this date.

The review of the Chinese and European civilizations’ capabilities and resources revealed very little inconsistencies regarding their strategies during the 11^th -13th century of Crusades. This is coherent with their traditional inside-out approach. However, the need to reconcile both the inside-out and outside-in approaches became imperative for the Chinese and European civilizations to effectively perform their roles in history.

 

PROMOTIONAL CULTURE

Executive Summary

            This is an essay that tackles the concept of culture jamming or ad-busting, in the context of promotional culture. The paper first provides a brief definition of culture jamming; then, discusses the trend and development of ad busting activities as exemplified by a commercial organization—Nike—and a protest organization—AdBusters—and lastly discusses ethics, truth, and trust, as concepts likewise related to the aforementioned topics.

 

Introduction

The field of advertising has been criticized by many as an area that does not give importance on essential social values and behavior. In fact, as was said by  and  (1977), “an ad is not a thesis on what society might be like under different or changed conditions: it is simply a tool for selling products to people as they are now (as cited in 1997, )

In connection to this, presently, people may currently have been witnesses to a number of print advertisements, billboard ads, or other promotional materials shown in the streets or through the internet, which illustrate a different outlook of already existing ads by famous companies: the transformation of the Apple logo into a skull; conversion of the corporate name Shell to read as $hell, with “hell” highlighted; or a change in the famed Nike slogan, “Just Do It” into “Just Stop It.” These are some concrete illustrations of what is popularly termed as culture jamming.

 

Culture Jamming or Ad-busting Defined

The name culture jamming was born in 1984 through a San Francisco band called Negativland. Basically, an effective culture jam reveals the deeper truth concealed behind layers of advertising euphemisms, often initiated by various internationally acclaimed corporations (, ,  and  2002, ).

Culture jamming may therefore be perceived as an X-ray of the subconscious of the existent promotional feat, for it presents the real intention of organizations. As one member of Negativland quoted, “the skillfully reworked billboard… directs the public viewer to a consideration of the original corporate strategy ( 2000, ).”

 

The Culture Jamming Trend

Culture jamming is an act that never disappears; in fact, in the last five years, people partake in this effort not merely as a form of prank but to participate in more meaningful, politically inclined efforts that could lead to the positive awareness of consumers and the public in general.

More specifically, young activists now make use of culture jamming to announce their dissatisfaction against multinational organizations that have forcefully pursued them as consumers, but has callously neglected them as workers.

To illustrate, one may consider the case of a commercial and internationally acclaimed company, Nike. It could be observed that Nike has established its brand through its quality products and services that cater to different types of people all over the globe. Aside from its outstanding merchandise, Nike is also recognized for its excellent marketing and advertising strategies; it could be remembered that the “Just Do It” slogan is the trademark of this organization. However, Nike remains to be one of the favorite multinational corporations that various individuals and groups continue to pursue, through their creative and merciless parodies.

One fundamental reason why such activities persist is because people are aware and refuse to tolerate the working conditions that Nike workers experience. Presently, the corporation operates an advanced distribution base in Memphis, Tennessee, and here, about “60 and 225 temporary workers with no job security and no health benefits are employed on a just-in-time basis ( 2000, . ).

Aside from this, Nike is also famous for its method of hiring cheap labor in developing nations such as Indonesia and Thailand, and these often lead to exploitation of human resources. An example of such mistreatment occurs in Indonesia, wherein the daily remuneration of the employees is set below the government-approved minimum wage ( 2000, ). And when employees fight for their right to appropriate compensation, they are denied and even dismissed from work.

To continue, the resurgence of culture jam is also caused by technological advancements in the present society, such as the propagation of the internet. Nowadays, the generation and passage of promotional parodies have been made extremely easier through the internet. To be more specific, sites that offer links to culture jammers throughout the world now abound the internet; digital versions of these ad parodies could be immediately and easily downloaded and used by practically anyone ( 2000, ).

            On the other hand, other ad-busters also make use of traditional means of culture jamming—through writings and drawings by means of wheatpaste or waterproof magic markers ( 2000, ).

            An example of this was done on one of the ads of Ford’s Ka. In the summer of 1998, Ford launched a billboard announcement which portrayed the Ka model as “London’s alternative transport ( 2001, ).” Additionally, in this advertisement, Ford declared that people should wise up and no longer count on public transportation; everyone should use the cutely proportioned Ka instead.  

            However, not every member of the public agreed. A citizen, concerned about the worsening pollution brought about by the uncontrollably increasing number of cars, slapped a poster across the chassis of Ka that bore a picture a woman’s bicycle along with the handwritten words, “Let London Breathe (2001, ).” Because of this simple and traditional act of ad-busting, this biased propaganda for commercialization transformed into an interaction with a completely different viewpoint— that the alternative to transportation problems is not the further propagation of cars in London streets, which would only lead to the aggravation of pollution.

            Furthermore, although the “Let London Breathe” poster was not refined and professionally produced, this piece of graphic design could be read well and was effective enough to convey its ultimate purpose—to bring about understanding and knowledge to the London commuters and to all citizens in the country.

Lastly, another factor that contributes to the spread of culture jam is the traditional rule of supply and demand, or the increasing market for the ridicule and rebellion against icons of corporate control. Briefly, this means that commercialist organizations that are able to suppress the traditional power of politics, religion, and schools presently appear as the focus of a variety of free-floating anger and subversion, in the form of ad-busting and culture jamming ( 2000, ).

Another group that advocates culture jamming activities is the protest organization called AdBusters. AdBusters Media Foundation (AdBusters) is an international network of writers, artists, students, teachers, activists, entrepreneurs, and pranksters who maximize the internet to advance the new social activist movement.      The institution manages an online site that contains a variety of elements that are united in order to achieve its goals—to overthrow the current power structures and initiate a major transformation on how people would live in the 21^st century (‘’ 2006).

Furthermore, AdBusters also has an online magazine that contains various articles that effectively awaken the world into the harsh realities that corporate giants participate in. On a lighter note, the site is also home to various animations, pictures, and other videos that present parodies of well-known ads and slogans. These spoofs, as was earlier mentioned in this paper, portray the reality behind the euphemisms used by the advertising efforts of successful and internationally acclaimed corporations such as Nike, McDonald’s and the like.

 

Promotional Culture and Culture Jamming

            Culture jamming or ad busting plays a significant role in the context of promotional culture; to be more specific, the concepts of trust and truth play a part in such interplay between these concepts.

            According to ’s (2000) study about truth and trust in the context of the society, people or organizations that communicate need some degree or dimension of truth to develop trust and to maintain positive relationships and communities (as cited in  2003, ). Such communication may be presented in various forms from something as casual as informal, day-to-day interactions, to something fundamental as advertising efforts by international corporations. However, if truth and trust are not properly established, defensiveness and cynicism would result from assumptions of dishonesty, which could threaten today’s society. Hence, truth and trust are the twin goals of ethical communication ( 2003, ).

            In order to promote ethics in the context of promotional culture, organizations should remember the three specific moral principles namely to respect truthfulness, to respect the dignity of each human person, and to respect social responsibilities.

            The first moral principle of promotional culture simply means that companies should see to it that their promotional efforts should never intentionally deceive consumers and the public in general (‘’ 2006). One instance wherein corporations may mislead customers is when they

try to exaggerate facts or when they intentionally withhold vital information about their products and services, which eventually leads to the dishonesty and deceit.

            For instance, in their website, AdBusters has a number of pictures that explicitly portray to the public the hazards brought about by frequent visits to fast food restaurants such as McDonald’s. Concrete examples of these are health dangers such as obesity, and other disorders brought about by intake of greasy food. With this, it could be derived that the mentioned company fails to provide its consumers the perils that it could bring to them, which is why individuals and organizations that promote culture jamming believe that it is their responsibility to uphold the truth.

            The second principle, which is to respect the dignity of each human person, means that the welfare of the majority should be the foremost concern of any organisation. Moreover, special attention and care should be given to individuals who are considered vulnerable and weak, such as the youth, the elderly, the underprivileged, and the culturally disadvantaged (‘’ 2006).

            Lastly, respect to social responsibilities basically means that corporations also have to answer to their responsibility to the society. To answer to such accountability, organizations should see to it that every activity or every products and services they market, always promote the good of the society.

 

Conclusion

One could easily observe that the concept of culture jamming and ad busting are interesting and socially relevant issues that could effectively influence people with regard to their patronage of various products and services.

In connection to this, (1999) believed that the understanding and awareness of advertising efforts could lead people through “crucial areas of contemporary culture, to issues of consumption, media, and social identities ().” Hence, it is construed that the field of advertising is truly ever-present in today’s culture, but is not monolithic or invincible. It is therefore important for organizations, especially those that operate on an international level and primarily make use promotional campaigns, to fully comprehend these concepts, and to constantly observe accountability to the society, their consumers, shareholders, and the public in general.

 

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

 

Journal

Online Resources

 

 

Italian Culture

            This paper will discuss the cultural beliefs and traditions present in the Italian society. It will try to discuss important sociological factors manifested in the Italian society. It will also try to describe the norms, values and beliefs of the Italian culture. This paper will primarily focus on the family organization of Italy.

            Since the family is a significant factor in building and maintaining a society, a clear presentation of norms and tradition with regards to the structure of the family inside the Italian society must be made in order to truly comprehend the intricacies of the society mentioned. One of the structural features of any family or kinship system is the way by which descent is traced. In general descent does not mean recognition of genealogical ties to the exclusion of others. Descent merely affiliates the individual at birth with a particular group of relatives to whom he is expected to be especially close.

            Most Italians trace their ancestry through both paternal and maternal lines. This bilateral or bilineal descent associates the individual with a group of kinsmen related to him through both his parents. Bilateralism is evident by the equally close ties that are maintained with both sides of kinsmen. Close interaction including mutual help and support is expected of all relatives, irrespective of whether they belong to the paternal or maternal side. This principle of bilaterality, if applied to the next ascendant generation, results in the doubling of descent lines since there are now four grandparents on both sides. This is the concept of multilineal descent, which means doubling of descent lines each time reckoning goes higher in the next ascending generation.  (1991) claimed that rule of descent is vital in defining the link between generations. This rule of descent as stated by  (1991) is inherent in the Italian family and has far reaching consequences on the structure of relationships within the kinship group. They make clear the reciprocal rights and obligations of members, specify authority and inheritance patterns and even pinpoints whom one can or cannot marry (1991).

            Another important aspect of the Italian family organization is the rule of residence. The residence rule of the Italian society affects the structure of the family and kin group. Residence determines who is thrown into close contact with whom. Residence affects the pattern of socialization and social control among Italian children (2001).As noted by (1996) grandchildren for instance feel closer and are influenced more deeply by grandparents and other kinsmen with whom they grow up than by those whom they see only during Sunday visits. He added that they are also subject to the former’s authority and control more than the latter (1996). Similarly, strong family ties are perpetuated between the married couple and whoever kinsmen they live with (1996). Thus residence has a big impact on the quality and quantity of social interaction with kin.

            The ideal pattern that most Italian couple aspires for is the neolocal residence (1996). Young couples prefer to set up their own households as soon as they are able. Parents on their part, also prefer their married children to live separately in order for then to learn the responsibilities of independent living (1996). Furthermore, elderly parents prefer to live with unmarried children or go to nursing homes because they feel this to be less of an imposition than living with children who have families of their own (1999).

            Patterns of authority in the family differ from society to society. Authority in the Italian family goes vertically downwards on the basis on the basis of age (1999). Traditionally, a ladder type of authority exists whereby the older children, whether male or female are dominant over the younger ones. The eldest child, in particular has a quasi-paternal status and has authority including the right to punish the younger siblings for misbehaviors (1999). The first born female, especially, is entrusted with the care of the young siblings and is answerable for whatever happens to them. She is expected to put the interest and welfare of the young above her own. In return, she is looked up to with respect as an authority figure and second parent in the family.

            The importance of age in patterning relationships both within and outside the family is seen in the traditional subordination-superordination which characterizes the division of generations (1984).  Principle of generation or age grading is present in the Italian society. Members of the same generation are set apart from the others in accordance with the order of descent. Each group follows certain prescribed rules of behavior and certain assigned rights and obligations (2001). For instance, the paternal and grandparental generations are expected to take care of the children and grandchildren (2001). In return, the latter are expected to obey and respect the former. Thus each individual is seen in a relation to the rest of the kinsmen according to age and the order of descent.

            Each society has a kinship system which provides the individual with a circle of socially defined relatives. The kinship system also presents a set of norms, of usages and patterns of behavior between kinsmen. It involves a system of terminologies by which relatives of different categories are spoken of or by which they are addressed. It also involves conventional rules of behaviors, attitudes and interpersonal relations as well as certain rights and privileges pertaining to kin. Kinship among Italians as asserted by Forgacs (1996) is interpreted in terms of all three criteria: descent, marriage and pseudo relationship. Thus the Italian’s larger kin group consists of consaguineal, affinal and spiritual relatives. The consaguineal kinsmen are relatives by blood. This group is large because of the bilateral extension and the multilineal structure of the Italian family (forgacs, 1996, p. 211). It includes all the direct ascendants from great grandparents to parents and all the descendants from children to great grandchildren Forgacs, 1996, p. 210). It also includes the collateral realtives such as siblings, cousins, parents’ siblings and grandparents’ siblings.

            Although considered less important than the consaguineal kin, the affinal relatives are also counted as part of the larger kin group. By marriage, the wife becomes an affinal kin of the husband’s family of orientation and the husband, of the wife’s (1984). The parents, siblings and other relatives of the spouse also consider themselves merged as affinal kin by marriage.  (2001) then concluded that the affinal group can be very large because of the union of the two consaguineal families.

             Aside from the consaguineal and addinal kin, the larger kin group of the Italian family includes the spiritual or ceremonial kin. These are the relatives acquired through the ceremonies of baptism, confirmation and wedding (1984). Each of these ceremonies involves at least two sponsors. These sponsors and their families become spiritual kinsmen of the sponsored and his or her family. Considering that there are about children in the average family who will go through three ceremonies during their lifetime, the number of ritual kinsmen added to the family’s wider circle of relatives is quite big (1984).

            Traditionally, kinship consideration directs and regulates much of an Italian’s relationship and behaviors. Kinsmen are distinguished clearly from non kinsmen and are given special treatment and priority. Within the kinship group, members know exactly the degree of their relationship and how they are to interact specifically with one another (1999). In general, mutual help and reciprocity characterize kin relations, which in turn reinforce and preserve kinship solidarity and cohesiveness (1999).

            The processes of modernization, industrialization and urbanization as noted by  (1963) in his book has brought about rapid changes in social and economic structure and had altered the cultural environment of the young. The close extended family, for instance has gradually loosened its hold on the individual, allowing him free relative freedom to plan and work out his own life (1963). The school with its positive orientation to change has encouraged the young to aim high and achieve beyond what the family reached and the peer group has become the source of behavior and attitudinal standards (1963).

            Industrialization and urban migration has undermined the traditional system of family control since these social conditions gave the individual wide opportunities for participation in the production and distribution of goods and services outside the home (1963). Young people are no longer economically dependent on family elders. Improved roads and transportation has also contributed to the greater independence of the young. In a study conducted by (2005) among young Italians in three companies based in Rome, he found out that those who were urbanized because they stayed in the capital longer had a shorter courtship period, more non church weddings and more tendency to be independent of their kinsmen in matters of wedding arrangements and residence after marriage that the more recent migrants.

            Today, there are many opportunities for young people to interact. Coeducation has given young men and women the chance to meet and interact with one another (, 1991). They share classroom activities and projects daily and participate in school affairs such as programs, sportfest and other celebrations. In urban areas, the other occasions for young people to be together are parties, picnics and other social gatherings (1991). They also met in restaurants, movie houses or at work.

            Modern courtship need not be carried on entirely face to face. Young people can communicate through beepers, cell phones or even through the internet. As before, a young man can also express love through love notes but sans the flowery words because the Italian youth today use more direct language.  The man usually visits the young lady in her house and may also pick her to and from school or office. Moreover the two individuals often engage themselves in long conversation over the phone or the internet, a testimony to the case of communication among the youth in modern times (2001).

            The wedding of a couple marks the end of their courtship and the beginning of their married life. It unites them as man and wife and brings together two families. It also serves as a public affirmation of a new relationship between the wedding partners including their obligation to each other and their culturally prescribed tasks and roles. After weddings in Italy, (2005, p. 264) observed that guests traditionally throw a shower of rice or paper confetti as the newlyweds leave the church . The confetti symbolizes money and good fortune for the couple. In traditional Italian weddings, guests are also expected to repay former favors done for them by the families of the newlyweds (2005, p. 266). The mothers-in-law are seated near a table that is set expressly for the purpose of receiving and recording these favors. Witnesses record who gave and the value of each gift. Another way to raise funds for the couple's honeymoon is practiced by cutting the groom’s tie into pieces and being sold to the wedding guests as a memento of the day (2005). The Tarantella, a traditional wedding dance is performed at the reception while white, sugar coated almonds known as confetti are distributed among the guests (2001). These sweets are symbols of the couple's bittersweet union. The number of almonds in each bag is very important. Even numbers are considered bad luck, so bags of three or five almonds are a representation of the couple and their future children (2001). Five almonds symbolize love, fidelity, longevity, fertility and happiness.

            Postwar economic development meanwhile profoundly affected not only social class but family—and particularly the roles of women. Prosperity produced by this economic boom ended simply to reinforce traditional gender roles; the earnings of male “breadwinners” left women largely as “homemakers” (2005) When women did enter the work force they were usually relegated to lower-paying jobs, often in the “black” economy. By 1980, however, women had grown to about one-third of the work force, and increases in formal education had enabled them to break into the better-paid professions, as had women in the rest of Europe (2005). At the same time, a decrease in the size of the Italian family prompted women to seek jobs to supplement family incomes.

Changing roles of women in the workplace have been accompanied by changes in the Italian family. The average family size dropped from about four persons at the end of the war to fewer than three persons in 1990, while the number of two-person households increased markedly. The number of marriages per thousand has dropped, whereas the rates of divorce, out-of-wedlock births and common-law marriage climbed (2005). In general, these rates have leveled off to approximate European norms, but divorce rates remain well below average (2005 ). Two trends set Italians apart from other European families. One is a precipitous drop in fertility rates, leaving the average at a little over one child per woman which is one of the lowest in the world (2005). Another striking trend among Italian families is the extended period during which Italian youth continue to live with their parents. At age thirty, roughly one-half of Italian men and one-quarter of Italian women reside at home (2005). Scholars such as (2005) attribute this exceptional tendency to the lack of good jobs and housing available to young people and the subsequent inclination to delay marriage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Explain how cultural differences between individuals can influence communication between them

Culture and Cultural Differences          

Nowadays, the term “culture” has already become one of the most common words in all kinds of public discourse. It has been constantly heard from journalists and politicians, not to mention of academics especially those in all disciplines of Humanities. “Popular culture”, “research culture”, “mass culture” – there is almost no limit as to the applicability of the term in any context. If one looks at the subject of culture in a historical way, three things came out (1994).

The definition of culture even up to this date continues to be debated by anthropologists and other scholars. In one concept, (1994) defines culture as “the system of understanding characteristics of that individual’s society or of some subgroup within that society” which includes “values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and unacceptable behavior and other socially constructed ideas that members of the society are taught as ‘true’” (). The members of cultures go about their daily lives within shared webs of meaning (1973). Upon associating the two definitions provided by  and one can assess culture as invisible webs composed of values, beliefs, ideas about appropriate behavior and socially constructed truths.

            According to  (1996) and  (1983), an individual’s own culture is most of the time invisible to the individual himself or herself. However, it should be noted that they are the circumstances within which people operate and make sense of the world. As individuals come across a culture which is different from their own culture, one of the issues that they face is a set of beliefs that marked themselves in behaviors that differ from their own. It is in this way that people often discuss regarding other people’s cultures and not so much on their own. It has been perceived that an individual’s own culture is usually hidden from them. People even describe it as “the way things are”. Nevertheless, one’s beliefs, ideas and actions are not any more natural or biologically predetermined than any other group’s beliefs, ideas and actions. They have simply emerged from the ways one’s own group has dealt with and deduced the particular circumstances that it has faced. As conditions change, so do cultures; hence, cultures are said to be dynamic.

            However, individual cultural identity poses yet another layer of complexity. Even members of the same culture vary significantly in their beliefs and actions. All peoples have unique identities that have been developed within their specified cultures. However, these identities are not fixed or static. For this reason, stereotypes do not hold up since no two individuals from any culture are exactly alike. It should be noted that despite the fact that living inside a culture will allow its members to become acquainted with their total cultural heritage of that specified society, no individual actually internalizes the entire cultural heritage. As a matter of fact, it would actually be impossible for any individual to acquire a society’s entire cultural heritage since there are as you might expect complicated and conflicting values, beliefs and ideas within the specific heritage which is a result of the conditions and events that individuals and groups experience.

Culture is an important factor in understanding organisation, because for any organisation to operate effectively it must for some extent have a general set of believe and assumptions. Because understanding the term of the culture metaphor helps organisations to be aware of how employees are thinking about the organisation phenomena, and to recognise how different attitudes, value and beliefs affect the workplace.

Understanding and assessing the national culture and organisation's culture can mean the difference between success and failure in today's fast changing organisational environment. Cultural assessment can provide measurable data about the real organisational values and norms that can be used to get management's attention.

Accordingly, culture is inseparable form the nation of human society which makes defining it a complicated task. As a result, there are many definitions for culture.(2002, 8) define culture as “an integrated system of learned behavior patterns, characteristic of the members of any given society”. In addition Hofstede (1991) identifies culture as “collective programming of the mind”.

 

 (1993) defines cultural diversity as the "representation, in one social system, of people with distinctly different group affiliations of cultural significance. " To identify and measure the effects of diversity, it is necessary to examine an organization’s culture. Traditionally, organizational culture encompasses the shared values, beliefs, behavior, and background of the organization’s members. Members share a common socio-cultural heritage. Culture once portrayed ethnic or nationality groups but in recent years cultural factors now include race, gender, sexual orientation, age, or disability.

            People of different ethnic backgrounds possess different attitudes, values, and norms. Increasing cultural diversity in both public and private sectors focuses attention on the distinctions between various ethnic groups in their attitudes and performance at work.

More often than not, differences in cultural norms and values among ethnic groups reveal themselves in different work-related behaviors. One area of cultural differences researched extensively is the contrast between individualism and collectivism. Compared to individualist cultures, collectivist cultures emphasize the needs of the group, social norms, shared beliefs and cooperation with group members.

The vast majority of cultural diversity initiatives in the U.S. focus exclusively on valuing differences. Instead, Fine argues, the dominant corporate culture must be transformed into a multicultural organization.  Fine defines a multicultural  organization as an organization that: values, encourages, and affirms  diverse cultural modes of being and interacting, creates an organizational dialogue in which no one cultural perspective is presumed to be more valid than other perspectives and empowers all cultural voices to participate fully in setting goals and making decisions.

Changing corporate culture and management systems to accommodate the diversity of employees involves strategic initiatives that are designed to break down barriers that prevent all people from contributing to their fullest potential. and Associates (1992) describe examples of corporate diversity initiatives that are "intentionally planned, targeted against business objectives, long-term oriented, and involve the entire organization.  For example, Travel Related Services, a subsidiary of American Express, focused their efforts on becoming "the Best Place to Work" by providing benefits that would attract and retain employees from an increasingly diverse labor pool. Child-care subsidies, improved part-time benefits, sabbaticals, and flexible work arrangements were introduced after a systematic diagnosis and planning effort involving input from employees.

Another study of corporate diversity initiatives by  (1992) is based on interviews with over 200 managers in 16 U.S. companies. The research describes the barriers that prevent women and minorities from advancing as well as the processes that facilitate their movement through the ranks. Recruitment, development, and accountability strategies that foster an appreciation for diversity and allow organizations to achieve measurable results are labeled "best practices."

One of the practices (1992) cites is the use of internal advocacy groups as a means for building commitment to diversity and monitoring the corporation's diversity practices. Advocacy groups were found in 10 of the 16 companies examined in the  study. While the roles and power of these groups vary within corporations,  (1992) acknowledges that much of their negotiating power comes from the information they receive about personnel administration (personnel profiles, promotions, pay records, and advanced notice of personnel policies). According to , some executives communicate this information in order to share responsibility for identifying diversity problems and developing solutions.

            Managing the process of resolving conflicts in a culturally diverse organization, therefore, is the central task, making sure that positive effects are garnered from the situation by understanding that all of those involved or in controls are doing everything in their power to maximize the positive products and quality output, while minimizing the disruptive consequences among the members of the project team in a culturally diverse organization ( 1998).. Such good management, in turn, requires a full and sophisticated grasp of major elements in the managing process.

Individual causes and determinants of conflicts in a culturally diverse organization, such as faulty attributions, poor styles of communication, and personal traits or characteristics that contribute to interpersonal friction, all play a role in this regard and must be taken into account (2001) .Similarly, culturally diverse organization-based factors, such as competition for scarce resources, ambiguity over responsibility or jurisdiction, growing internal complexity, and faulty or inadequate forms of communication, must also be considered.

 

An effective, culturally diverse organization is one whose culture is inclusive of all of the varying groups and constituencies it intends to serve, that is, in the case of the services, the people of the state (1995). The organization’s values, vision, mission, policies, procedures, and norms constitute a culture that is manifested in multiple perspectives and adaptability to varying values, beliefs, and communication styles. People from differing cultural groups in business operations have differing perspectives, manifested in their values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

 

Cultural Differences and Communication

Studies on organizational communication have always been used by large companies so as to ensure good working relationships among employees as well as to evaluate the relationship among members and staff of big corporations.  (1997) further elaborated that the idea of global community in a model that suggests intercultural and international communication and ethical problems to best address the immediate need is of much importance to truly build a global community. Inquiries have been made in order to realize how the Eastern and Western culture differ in the work setting by comparing the evident and obvious contrasts between different cultural orientations and ethnicity. Such differences include most recurring ethical dilemmas brought about by race in business where employees and staff of varying cultural orientations who work together as an organization.

 

(2000) in his journal article proposes the use of ethics audit in the company is composed of decision-making protocols designed to address ethical dilemmas which includes an outline of steps to follow in dealing with ethical problems in the workplace so as to identify ethical issues in the practice settings, assess risk levels, rank order each issue, and eventually develop a strategy to minimize risks. He concluded that social workers have not had access to a structured guide to help to help them assess their efforts to identify and address key ethical issues. Such issues usually comprise confidentiality and privacy, service delivery, professional boundaries, informed consent, defamation, practitioner impairment, and termination of services.

 

Studies on organizational communication have always been used by large companies so as to ensure good working relationships among employees as well as to evaluate the relationship among members and staff of big corporations. (1997) further elaborated that the idea of global community in a model that suggests intercultural and international communication and ethical problems to best address the immediate need is of much importance to truly build a global community.   

Yes, it is true that organizational communication in the area of Human Resource processes involves the integration of such roles addressing to positive communication climate as effective communication is a major factor for the strengthening of work values and attitudes in the diverse workforce. The management should realize and apply actual ways in order for the staff employees to be versatile and effective in their work most in engaging into business interaction to the key players within the organization and in dealing greatly to the customers as well as to improve self confidence and drive better motivation for every situation. An organization needs to consistently promote good communication lines and channel for cooperation to achieve a sustainable work dynamics and synergy in individual staff and work team in terms of providing essential work environment for the success of the organization and achieve its vision for the benefit of the people. It is said that, organizational communication as of the modern times offers a new approach in developing an understanding of diverse work scenarios and skills for work and other organizational activities relating to the process of making decisions, work training and managing conflicts to enhance better skills in communication as well as encourage useful teamwork but also rewarding individual performance facing  crucial organizational players. Human resource leaders can help enhance employee morale, individual performance and organizational success. In these uncertain and always changing times and that in situation, communication is critical between managers and its members in order to assure a steady flow of information, an organization should play a major role in assuring effective communication and be delivered in the useful process of communication.

Inescapable as it may seem, workplace dilemmas brought about by different cultures are unavoidable and should be expected at work especially in business firms owned or controlled by individuals from a different cultural orientation especially when they employ the local citizens in their international operations. Dealing properly with situations such as instances of principled power struggle between supervisors and subordinates from different cultural orientations, will be of much help in running a business firm properly and successfully. Addressing conflicts and working out understanding by compromising for the good of all will pave the way to maintain smooth working relationships among the employees, staff, supervisors and subordinates.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Global and Local Culture

GLOBAL AND LOCAL CULTURE

 

 

 

 

 

 

FEAR AND WARINESS ABOUT THE POWER OF MASS MEDIA

 

 

            The current era in history is generally characterized as one of globalization and technological revolution (2001).  Today, people of the world are not only citizens of their individual nations, but citizens of a world community being navigated by a worldwide revolution of media, information and communication breakthroughs where flow of images and information is affecting nations, their policies, and their relations with one another (1999, 2001).  However, beneath the global cooperation and sharing there are many unintended and unpredicted side-effects of the spread of mass media.  The media portray a very limited and excessive violent view of the world (1998). 

           

             (2003) stated that in their quest for large audiences and ways to increase advertising revenue and corporate profit, media have continued to blur their distinction between news and entertainment. Acts of political violence are particularly well suited for presentation and infotainment and are given massive amounts of attention.  Perpetrators of political violence seek vast news coverage of their deeds that capture the attention of citizens and political leaders not only in targeted countries, but throughout the world. To insure the greatest possible news coverage, terrorists go out of their way to provide the media with cruel, shocking, and frightening images (). Moreover, even in less-developed areas, the phenomenon of global mass media can be profound. A single television screen in a village square can introduce a whole new world to its viewers. The images it projects can challenge old truths and raise new expectations that threaten old orders and values (1999).  According to (2000) media critics also point to adolescents’ exposure to “sexy” television and popular music.  As youth physically mature at increasingly earlier ages, they are confronted with strong biological drives and attend to different media messages for answers and interpret them differently depending on the adolescents' levels of biological, cognitive, and social maturity ().

 

THE HUMANE FUNCTIONS OF THE GLOBALIZATION OF MASS MEDIA

 

 

            Mass media is a powerful tool in bringing messages of unity, peace, change, global trends, and lifestyles across national boundaries.  Mass media have been used in campaigns to increase awareness on contemporary issues like HIV/AIDS, smoking, adolescent drinking and sexuality, drugs, obesity, mental illness, family planning and use of contraceptives, violence, environment, suicide and other important topics that pervade the modern global society.  It is agreeable that media is an influential tool that people use to bring across national borders the positive values in the West or help fulfill humane causes. 

             (1998) reported that modernization theory sees communication and mass media as a necessary precursor to economic growth and social change.  This theory also emphasizes the connection between media expansion and institution-building, political stability, and economic growth.  According to this dominant view of nation-building, the mass media are cited as methods for helping to spread democratic ideals, increase political participation, create feelings of community, build national unity and loyalty, facilitate informed self-government, and enable participation in the new information society ().  Some say that favorable and truthful mass media would remove the society's veil of ignorance and people would see the need to better their lives (.).   (2006) also reported that mass media information on health-related issues may induce changes in health services utilization, both through planned campaigns and unplanned coverage.  Mass media maybe considered as one of the tools that may encourage the use of effective services and discourage those of unproven effectiveness.

            (1993) specified the movie entitled Sonomoni (Golden Pearl) in Bangladesh as one example of popular media interventions to promote social change.  Cinema and films are major entertainment media in Bangladesh and this particular production made thousands of people line up to see the film at movie theaters in the country.   The movie was directed by the late Bangladeshi director  with an all-Bangladeshi technical crew.  It was produced by John Riber of Development through Self-Reliance Inc. (DSR) and supported by Population Services International (1989).  The film tells the story of Gafur and his wife Rohima, who lose access to the source of safe drinking water in their village. Their baby soon suffers dysentery and dehydration, a consequence of drinking polluted water from the village pond.  learn about oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and save the child's life. Through this popular film, millions of Bangladeshi families have learned about ORT (1993).   Oral rehydration therapy is a preventive strategy supported by the World Health Organization against dehydration which is a basic result of diarrhea.  Diarrhea is a common disease in third world countries like Bangladesh wherein most people do not have adequate access to safe drinking water.  The Rehydration Project (2006) defines ORT as the the giving of fluid by mouth to prevent and/or correct the dehydration that is a result of diarrhea. Oral rehydration therapy with an inexpensive glucose and electrolyte solution as advanced by the World Health Organization has reduced substantially the number of deaths from dehydration due to diarrhea. The film was both educative and instrumental in promoting a health-related strategy to the citizens of Bangladesh and to all the other nationalities who have watched the film. 

            The film is a concrete example of how the media are used to deliver messages that would better the lives of people across different countries in the world.  It may only be one film in Bangladesh but anyone who watched it has acquired useful knowledge that may help him or her save his or her children and family from the grave danger of a disease as simple as diarrhea. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Strategic Alliance

OBJECTIVES

As a person with knowledge of strategic alliances, the author has always brought up to his superiors the viability of strategy formation regarding the analysis of this topic and at times fails to understand the reasons or logic behind certain strategic implementations imposed on it.

By delving into this project paper, the author intends to have better insights into how strategic alliances are thought up, formulated and then imparted down into the subsidiaries of the company or organization. The author hopes to have an in-depth understanding as to how the strategic alliance enables companies and organizations to compete effectively and profitably in this era of internationalization where competition is extremely intense.

In order to reinforce the learning objectives, two key focal issues were focused upon i.e. innovation and diversity. Innovation was discussed with regard to strategic alliances among companies and organizations where it was renowned for its developmental capabilities to constantly innovate. Diversity came under strategic thinking and formation as the author considered the diverse culture, political climate, economic surroundings, social environment, technological settings, government policies and legal systems in order to better understand the issues being discussed.

 

 

EXECUTIVE BRIEF

This essay utilized Palm, Inc. and Heineken as the model organizations to review its past strategic alliances with various companies and how they dealt with critical situations. From the analysis, key trends in the strategic alliances were then identified, how they worked and their effectiveness in dealing with critical situations was ascertained. The paper then moved on to assess Palm, Inc. and Heineken’s strategic alliance strategies with regard to their suitability to critical situations, during which the internal capabilities of these strategic alliance strategies in relation to the overall strategy being followed by Palm, Inc. and Heineken was determined also. An overall analysis of the performance and effectiveness of Palm, Inc. and Heineken’s strategic alliance strategies was also conducted to assess and compare the capabilities of these strategies with those of others. Gaps in the strategic alliance strategies and environment were then identified.

Finally, several choices of strategies to improve the strategic alliance strategies of Palm, Inc. and Heineken as effective means in critical situations were recommended and evaluated in terms of appropriateness to the issues reviewed, feasibility in carrying out the options and acceptability within the key stakeholders and decision makers. Several key implementation issues related to managing strategic change were also addressed as well.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

A strategic alliance happens when two (2) companies come into agreement to combine their operations together, thus forming a new company where both function as equal partners (Datta, 1991).  A strategic alliance can also happen when one company buys the full interest in another company with the agreement that the buyer will have the right to determine how the combined operations will be managed. Strategic alliance transactions are commonly smooth along the way. The allied companies are able to solicit bids and thus able to submit into an acquisition voluntarily.

Some businessmen argue that the fast pace of strategic alliances ultimately becomes the driving force behind the formulation of agreements and rules for business conduct. Strategic alliance deals may have the potential to create enormous economic and social consequences. They can easily drive away the major competitors within a country. They can also determine how and where people should work. However, earning the approval of the government for strategic alliance deals would never be easy. But usually, the first step of seeking the government approval is relatively easier than managing the new company. Strategic alliance deals undergo through series of stages. At every stage, the effective management of human resource (HR) and cultural issues is critical. This is initiated by the identification of the HR issues and their significance for the company’s activities.

Important changes in the understanding and management of strategic alliances among multinational companies have been developed in the past 10 to 15 years. Various researchers, practitioners and policymakers now acknowledge that the risks involved in culture and human resources after the strategic alliance and company restructuring can be conceptualized from a functional perspective and that appropriate interventions involve the development of alternative measures to cope up.

Companies today have to be efficient, flexible and profitable. Without these factors, it would be very difficult to compete in the global economy. Aside from participating in strategic alliances to fully enhance the resources they need to become competitive, many companies now evolve and expand through mergers or acquisitions. Among the most important strategic alliances in recent years are Daimler-Chrysler, Chase-J.P. Morgan, SKB-Glaxo, NationsBank-Bank of America, and Deutsche Telekom-Voice Stream. Although global economic and market conditions are unpredictable, the future provides the best conditions for the continuation of strategic alliance processes.

 

 

 

OVERVIEW OF STRATEGIC ALLIANCE CASE 1

Palm, Inc. is a business entity specializing in mobile computing. Its products enable its customers to put the power of computing in their hands, along the process accessing the information they need.  Palm, Inc. was established in 1992 by Jeff Hawkins, Donna Dubinsky, and Ed Colligan, which later co-invented  the Palm Pilot (Amsden, 2001).

In 1995, Palm, Inc. merged with U.S. Robotics Corporation. In June 1997, Palm, Inc. became a subsidiary of 3Com when the U.S. Robotics Corporation was acquired by 3Com. As its subsidiary, 3Com then made Palm, Inc. an independent company on March 2, 2000 through a public trade under the ticker symbol PALM. In August 2003, the company renamed its hardware division to palmOne, Inc. In April 2005 palmOne was bale to buy PalmSource's share in the 'Palm' trademark for  about US$30 million. Then just last July 2005, palmOne launched its new name and brand going back to Palm, Inc. and trading under the ticker symbol PALM (Kim, 1997).

Objectives of Strategic Alliance

Palm, Inc. aims for sustainable growth as a broad market leader in mobile computing as well as for segment leadership. In both cases, the Palm, Inc. brands will play a crucial part. Palm, Inc. is able to establish its broad leadership usually by acquiring other strong mobile computing companies and their products, which are then combined into a new, larger company. Offering training to its employees, improving the company operations, and the introduction of new technologies then reinforces the positions of the various Palm products. This practically results in economies of scale that is able to create a distribution network for both the local and international Palm products. If a market is already in the control of other mobile computing companies, Palm, Inc. devotes its attention towards the development of a premium segment with its various Palm products.

            The mission of US Robotics Corporation, on the other hand, is to secure the growth of its business in a sustainable manner, while at the same time constantly improving the company’s profitability. The strategy to achieve this involves four elements:

1. Striving in order to reach a leading position in attractive markets
2. Focusing on securing a competitive share of the mobile computing market segments.
3. Working in order to improve the company’s efficiency and cut costs in operations.
4. Continuous growth through selective acquisitions for as long as they are able to create shareholder value. 

 

 

 

Benefits of Strategic Alliance

Among the competitive advantages enjoyed by both companies upon merging included the following:

·        Economies of Scale and Scope in manufacturing and research and development arising from its numerous facilities situated in the United States and other countries worldwide.

·        Unique Quality Technology owing to heavy emphasis on research

Palm, Inc.’s commitment to research & development activities has always been one of its top strategies to remain competitive in the market.    

·        Differentiated Products

Through the production and marketing of differentiated products originating from their research and development activities, Palm, Inc. is able to create its own firm-specific advantages. The continuous pursuit of research and development processes enables Palm, Inc. to produce a steady stream of originally differentiated products which makes it difficult for competitors to find substitutes. Because of this differentiated approach, Palm, Inc. is able to market their products worldwide, which enables them in turn to maximize the returns on research and development expenditures.

ASSESSMENT OF STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT

A. Product-Service Market

Palm products include smart-phones and handheld computers. These are equipped with a Personal Information Management (PIM) software and other note-taking applications (Arora et al. 2001).  A range of additional features including high resolution coloured screens and wireless capabilities ensure that there's a Palm product designed to meet the needs of clients anywhere in the world.

B.  Design Philosophy

Hand-held computers are different from a laptop. Palm products focus more on the management and access of information rather the creation and editing of documents. For this reason, Palm, Inc. has developed a unique set of guiding principles - simplicity, wearability and mobility. Total commitment to these principles makes Palm products very user-friendly to its customers (Hobday, 1995).

 

C. Customers

A majority of Palm customers are professionals who rely on mobile gadgets and expect seamless handoffs every time they make calls. For instance, a customer phones in a service request from the New York airport while boarding a plane bound to Paris the same day. The technical people of Palm, Inc. in New York will immediately work on the service ticket of the client. And when that client arrives in Paris, he / she would be able to call the New York service center and pick up exactly where he / she left off (Barlett et al. 1999).

D. Competitors

Palm, Inc. is the world's leading producer of hand-held computers. Interestingly enough, Palm, Inc. has an even larger share in the market for hand-held computer operating systems. Around eighty (80) percent of hand-held computers in the United States operate on a Palm operating system. Microsoft is the only major competitor with a share of sixteen (16) percent. The hardware market gives Palm, Inc. a market share of sixty (60) % (Hill, 2002). Of the major competitors, Sony Corporation and Handspring are both using Palm's operating system, and hold about 7% and 14% market shares respectively. Other competitors, such as Compaq and H-P, use Microsoft's operating system, but both companies have below 10% market share. Palm, Inc. has had so much success in the consumer market, but the future goals include selling more products to corporations (Baumol, 2002).

 

 

 

Performance after the Strategic Alliance

a. Financial Analysis

In the fiscal year of 2003, Palm, Inc. was able to experience a significant progress in several key metrics. The inventory was reduced from $55 million to $23 million and inventory turns rose from 12 to 26. The cost of revenues, excluding the benefit from previous special charges and the applicable portion of the amortization of intangible assets, decreased from 72.3% of revenues to 67.8% of revenues. The combination of sales and marketing, research and development, and general and administrative expenses was reduced from $ 435 million to $339 million, while at the same time improving on the pace of innovation. Palm, Inc.’s total revenue has approximately grown from $1 million in fiscal year 1995 to $ 871. 9 million in fiscal year 2003.

b. Marketing

The retailers in the United States represent Palm, Inc.’s largest sales and marketing channel which encompass national and regional office supply stores and mass merchants. Distributors represent Palm, Inc.’s second largest United States channel and generally sell to both traditional and Internet resellers and retailers. In Europe and Asia, Palm, Inc.’s market share is still relatively high. Palm, Inc. has more than 100 international distributors located worldwide.

            The company uses the Palm.com store as a venue to sell its products. This is accomplished through the use of e-marketing campaigns and product bundles. The company is able to build awareness of its products and brands through mass media advertising, public relations efforts and branded Internet properties. The company also makes it a point to receive feedback from its customers through market research. The company then uses these feedbacks to refine its product development efforts and marketing strategies.

c. Operations

Palm, Inc. out-sources all of its manufacturing and hardware designs of its products to third party manufacturers. This outsourcing extends from prototyping to volume manufacturing and includes activities such as material procurement, quality control and delivery to distribution centres. The company is assured that there is an adequate supply of components to manufacture its products. The majority of the company’s products are assembled in China and Mexico. Distribution centers are operated on an outsourced basis in Tennessee, Ireland, and Hong Kong.

d. Human Resources

Palm, Inc. knows that its future depends on the company’s ability to attract new personnel and retain existing personnel in key areas including engineering and sales. None of the company’s employees is subject to a collective bargaining agreement. The company considers its relationship to its employees to be good. As of June 30, 2003, Palm, Inc. has a total of 982 employees operating within a company organization structure. Ed Colligan is the current President and CEO of Palm, Inc., while Jeff Hawkins is the current Chief Technology Officer.

Critical Strategic Alliance Success Factors

Palm, Inc. was able to execute a successful strategic alliance because of the following success factors:

·        Financial Stability

Financial stability is crucial especially in the pursuit of strategic alliance and acquisition activities. In the mobile computing industry, it is important to remain updated with the latest technological developments to be able to stay competitive in the market.

·        Product Performance and Price

The designing of the best mobile products comes as a result of well-funded research and development activities. The strong performance of mobile products in the market could also be linked to their cost-effectiveness. However, the company has to be aware of the positioning in terms of process so as to maintain satisfactory profits margin and remain competitive in the market.

·        Marketing Strategy and Distribution

High brand awareness among the buyers has created the need for aggressive marketing, and access to strong distribution channels is critical for the introduction of new models (Best, 2001).

OVERVIEW OF STRATEGIC ALLIANCE CASE 2

            Heineken is one of the world's leading brewing companies in terms of profit and sales volume. The company has also the widest presence among all international brewing companies. This is made possible through a positioning strategy of global networking of breweries and distributors.

In terms of volume, Heineken is the largest beverage and brewer distributor in Europe. The company also balances stable and profitable markets in Europe and North America. In recent years, Heineken has initiated efforts to solidify its presence in the Asia Pacific Region through the acquisitions of beer markets in China and Russia.

The Heineken brand is one of the world's most valuable international premium beer brand. Heineken uses the name of both the company and its mainstream beer label, and this strategy has allowed the company to pursue an integrated marketing approach directly related to the company name.

Heineken, as a leader in their industry, has implemented various strategic alliances, most notably with SABMiller to fully adapt to the need to go global. However, it is more important for Heineken to implement a more sober approach to maintain consumer loyalty with their local brands. This is primarily due to the consolidation and globalization that are taking place across most industries, including the brewing industry.

Goals / Objectives of Strategic Alliance

A)   Remain one of the top companies in terms of global brewing. Being on top of its industry enables Heineken to command the respect and confidence of its clients. Thus, the company is able to expand its operations through the acquisition of other brewing firms.

B)    Gain more profit per hectoliter than other international brewers. The raw materials that are being laid down in the recipes used in Heineken are able to meet high quality standards. As a result of the strategic alliance with SABMiller, the company is able to earn more profit as against other brewing companies.

C)    Build the best brand portfolio, with Heineken as the international brand of flagship; and

D)   Maintaining its independence. Being an independent company allows Heineken to continue its tradition of excellence in both its products and services by setting new trends and standards.

In order to achieve these objectives, Heineken implements a strategy of selling a combination of local brands and international brands, but maintaining Heineken as the flagship brand. Heineken also aims for broader positions as well as either the top or secondary positions in any market of local beer. Any of these positions would be enough for Heineken to deliver a high level in terms of production, marketing and distribution. Moreover, these positions create a platform from which the company can sell their premium brand Heineken, Amstel and other specialty beers. Heineken's branches of breweries in the Netherlands and Poland are perfect examples of broad leadership positions. And with a continued focus on the structures of the costs, the above mentioned objectives should undoubtedly be reached.

Impacts of Strategic Alliance

Post-alliance integration of human resources involves a step by step and interactive process in which the individuals from two or more organizations come into agreement in terms of the transfer of strategic capabilities. The post-merger integration occurs at different levels. Here the identified levels are procedural, physical, and managerial/ socio-cultural. On the other hand, another research uses the terms task and human integration (Ivanevich et al. 1987).

 

Faulty integration of human resources is one of the various significant causes of problems that Heineken and SABMiller encountered following their strategic alliance. This problem can be attributed to factors such as post alliance managerial exhaustion and apathy due to the difficulty of protracted negotiations and insensitivity towards managers/employees (Horwitz et al. 2002). Because of the results of these earlier researches, the human side in the researches about strategic alliances has started to emerge. For example, Hunt found out in his research that the factors for success or failure in strategic alliances had been: (a) strategic fit, (b) cultural fit, (c) the management of a merger or acquisition process, (d) resistance of employees, and (e) other factors, such as: factors related to the environment, turnover management, financing methods, sizes of the organizations and experiences in acquisitions (Hunt et al. 1990).

CONCLUSION

The results of the analysis carried out on the strategic alliances made by Palm Corporation and Heineken with various companies indicated very significant effects for both companies, even amidst the threats of political unrest. Therefore, we could conclude that the company could still be expected to grow faster than average.

The review of both company’s capabilities and resources revealed very little inconsistencies regarding their strategic alliance strategies. This is coherent with their traditional inside-out approach. However, the need to reconcile both the inside-out and outside-in approaches becomes imperative now as part of the strategic alliance process.

The gap analysis among the environment, strategy and capabilities of both companies revealed certain gaps, most of which are biased towards the environment. However, these gaps paved the way towards determining a number of recommended strategic options to secure the company’s international competitiveness.

Also, the company has to find a balance between adherence to internal forces within the company and to the changing forces of the environment in order to implement such strategic options.

 

THE ROLE OF WOMEN TODAY IN SAUDI ARABIA

Juggling Cultures

            For many years, the Middle East has been one of the most troubled regions in the world, and a part of this region is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It has been reported that the absence of freedom is most visible in the region’s absolute autocracies, sham elections, and restrictions on the media and on civil society, and harmed by the systematic repression of its women population (“ ”, 2005). In addition, Arab women live under the control of a patriarchal society that relegates women to maternal figures without a place in the political or economic area (“”, 2005). However, during the present times, the role and the status of women in Saudi Arabia are now changing. Many women now work alongside men, and are highly educated and have professions in medicine, psychology, or other disciplines. As proof of women’s participation in social and political issues,  (2003) reports that four Saudi business women were part of a women’s delegation in Brussels, to show what Saudi women have achieved in various fields, correct some misconceptions about women’s rights in the Kingdom, change the image Westerners have of Saudi women and explain how women are involved in Saudi Arabia’s economic development.

            Given this information, the negotiations must be pushed through and be facilitated by the best possible leader, which in this case is a female. By this time, they  must be open to the fact that modernization has changed the perception of many cultures regarding leadership, and that it is now regardless of gender and more into developing the person’s ability to make good deals and negotiations with other companies. Although the discrimination of women could be considered as a threat to the success of the negotiation, the risk of the company to present its “wares” must not be compensated, by sending a less-skilled male. Business is a gamble, so the company must lay out its cards in the best position as possible to benefit from the business, which in this case is sending a female having the outstanding leadership to make the negotiations.

However, to properly make a good deal out of the negotiation, the female leader must also make some adjustments on her style and approach in negotiating with the Arab company.  In general, women’s leadership tend to emphasize relationships as key strategies for success, tend to drive more corporate philosophy with value driven, caring more for their employees, is more democratic, transformational and reward-oriented. These traits are useful, but somehow the female negotiator must become tougher in relating to the Arabs. She must incorporate in herself manly skills and thinking in terms of leadership, as men are more task-oriented, autocratic, exhibits command-and-control, are punishment-oriented and focus on experiences and assignments. This would somehow come to the realization of the Arabs that female leaders are worth their attention and respect, and that she is doing her best for the benefit of her company. Its implication would be the empowerment of the female gender in terms of leadership, gaining mutual respect and openness to cultural relativism.

Each individual has the ability to become leaders, regardless of gender and culture. We should keep in mind that the gender and culture of an individual must not be a hindrance in expressing ideas, because this could be a great venue for exchanging views and gathering more knowledge. This is only possible if we learn to accept the existence of other cultures and gender being equal.

References:

 

Teenage Culture, Creativity and Education

Teenage Culture, Creativity and Education

 

Introduction

            The life and culture of teenagers in the modern era have always been regarded as somehow contradictory to the prevailing stability of the society.  They are frequently stereotyped as the age group filled with angst, ambivalence, apathy, cynicism, quirkiness, stupid, immoral in that they are sexually-driven, gangsters, and rebellious (2006).  Are these things true?  Perspectives abound as to why they (seem to) act in these manners.  And, this essay is just about to provide an explication to it.  It intends to acquire enlightenment behind the issue of teenager’s cultures.  It is organized into two thesis questions.  The first question is: What is the theoretical position of John Fiske and Paul Willis on the issue of the culture of the teenagers?  The second question is: How do these positions influence your thinking about creativity and education?  These two queries serve as the heart of this essay.  The next section is just about to unfold the answers to the first idea in darkness. 

 

On the Issue of Teenage Cultures

            The discussion on the views of John Fiske and Paul Willis starts with comprehending the basic nature of their books.  These authors do not directly provide the answers to this first inquiry of the essay.  John Fiske is a renowned scholar in the study of Popular Culture.  His book seeks to provide its readers a deeper understanding of or information on the underlying dominant structures at the back of the manifestations of popular culture.  Paul Willis is popularly known as a socio-cultural theorist and ethnographer.  What is striking in his book is his employment of ethnography in generating an understanding of the reality within the social institution called education. 

 

Teenage Culture in the Eyes of John Fiske

            The main understanding that one can derive from John Fiske or in his book is the conception that, at the heart of the commodities that surround us is the value of opposition against the hegemonic forces of society.  Furthermore, it would be worth mentioning to bring into light his idea toward popular culture:

“deeply contradictory in societies where power is unequally distributed along axes of class, gender, race, and the other categories that we use to make sense of our social differences.  Popular culture is the culture of the subordinated and disempowered and thus always bears within it signs of power relations, traces of the forces of domination and subordination that are central to our social system and therefore to our social experience ().” 

This goes to show that the there is inequality within the ages.  The teenage population is oppressed by the adult ones.  Assuming that one of their stereotypes – rebellious – is true, what could account for such rebellion?  No one would rebel against another if inequality does not exist.  Personal freedom could be the reason behind, which is what almost every teenager yearns to acquire.  And what could be the legitimate means to voice out their rights but the material goods – commodities! 

 

            The discussion of John Fiske’s book starts with the jeans, a popular commodity even up to the present times.  It is worn by the many, such as the young population – the teenagers.  According to John Fiske (1991), because jeans are the symbolic representations of resistance, they have to be “disfigured” in such a way that resistance is indeed manifested (); its wearers are not merely “consuming” it, being a commodity, but “reworking it” ().  Indeed, this speaks for the presence of tattered, bleached or torn jeans.  Well of course, who else but the young population at large or specifically the teenagers are the ones who wear these kinds of jeans.  It is their way of actively responding to the product distributed by the prevailing economic forces. 

 

            The mall is the space of or the space claimed by the teenagers.  They consume the place as a form of their contradiction to the society.  They would gather in front of a boutique thereby causing as obstructions in visualizing the product being displayed.  Such act incites its owner to deal with them to step out of the boutique’s façade.  Another act is taking in substance such as alcohol; when in fact, it is prohibited in the mall.  Their strategy is to make use of soda cans as the containers of alcoholic substances.  What a trick!  In the view of John Fiske (1991), “the actual order of things is precisely what ‘popular’ tactics turn to their own ends, without any illusion that it will change any time soon” ().  Teenagers are deprived of spaces.  In some countries for instance, they are legally prohibited to hang out in bars or places where alcohols are served.  Teenagers, as one age group, make use of different spaces to express their antisocial behaviours.  They challenge authorities to come and get them, if they can. 

 

            There is another way to look at the case.  It should be clear that the teenage population is not one homogenous group.  Issues of class, race/ethnicity, etc. separate them apart.  Teenagers of different classes may consume similar space but have different agendas.  The “underdogs” co-inhabit the space to strategically attack the preferred ones. 

 

            According to John Fiske (1991), it is popular among the teenagers to engage in bodily pleasures, such as “head banging” in rock concerts, dancing amidst the dark or colorful and rotating lights of discos, drug intake, etc. ().  Teenagers pour out their thirst for individual and personal freedom, which are being obstructed by the government, by way of allowing their bodies to go out of control.  It is their way of getting out of the tight controls imposed upon them by the structures from which they live in. 

 

            The same view is true when it comes to television programs, movies or films.  Teenagers adhere to a certain program because of the sense of empowerment that they obtain from them.  The link between pleasure/relevance and empowerment may be problematic, yet more often than not, they are indeed connected to each other ( 1991).  Likewise, when teenagers identify themselves as fans of a certain icon, they actually identify the meanings that that icon propagates unto them, such as their rebellion against the society.  For instance, female teenagers identify themselves with Madonna, the music artist, because Madonna stands against the prevailing and existing patriarchy in the structure of society (1991).  Every commodity carries within it values thereby making it popular, especially to the subjugated ones. 

 

            The theoretical position of John Fiske on the issue of teenager culture is that teenagers actively struggle against the existing order via commodities.  The actions engaged upon by the teenagers are not disruptive at all.  Rather, these are their forms of opposition against the dominant culture. 

 

Teenage Culture in the Eyes of Paul Willis

            To start with, Paul Willis has raised a dichotomy between the “ear’oles” and the “lads”.  The latter refers to the students who deviate from and who always love to bully the former, who conform to the processes and standards of the school or schooling.  These terms were derived from his respondents, who are students, during his ethnography.  Interestingly, these students coin the term “ear’oles” because of the function of the ear, i.e. recipients or passive recipients of message or instruction providers.  Ear’oles are the ones who constantly listens without resisting at all (1981).  In his scholarly novel though, it appears that the lads are the protagonists while the ear’oles are the antagonists.  The bulk of the discussion explains the rationale of the lads’ (disruptive) actions, and provides as well a justification behind them. 

 

            It has to be made clear that in the eyes of the author at hand, the school signifies the dominant and oppressive structure of the society.  And, schools or schooling serve as its right hand.  Schools teach theories that are instrumental to the dominant and oppressive structure of society (1981), and provide “qualifications”, which the lads refuse ( 1981).  Schools exist to shape the minds of the young members to adhere to the goals of society. 

 

            The stereotypes raised in the opening paragraph of this essay might be partly true.  But what accounts for the existence of such stereotypes?  Why are there students who go against the order of society?  What could be the reasons why the teenagers have such kind of culture? 

 

            Teenagers utilize material goods and/or services in voicing out their contradiction against the standard way of doing things.  According to Paul Willis (1981), the very first manifestation of a teenager “coming out” is when he or she looks extremely different in such a way that outsiders are going to perceive it as abnormal or immoral ().  The author has illustrated this point through these examples – “longish well-groomed hair, platform-type shoes, wide collared shirt turned over waisted coat or denim jerkin, plus the still obligatory flared trousers…most certainly not school uniform” ( 1981).  If his point is going to be dug deeper, then one is going to conceive the idea that the school uniform is symbolic representation of an orderly system.  Students are asked to wear it to adhere to the idea of the prevailing order of society. 

 

            The lads, on the other hand, actively assert their non-conformity via clothes, haircut, and all other bodily adornments.  By abnormal perception, teenagers dress extraordinarily.  By immoral perception, they dress in a somewhat sexually provocative manner.  These are part and parcel of teenage culture.  This is their idea of “dress for success”.  Is this a form of their creativity?  Paul Willis (1981) asserts that the bits and pieces of creativity are not “imagined”, rather “discovered” (), which is exactly what he has done.  He has sought for the meanings behind those creative material goods. 

 

            Another feature of the teenage culture is substance intake, i.e. alcohol, nicotine, and even drugs.  Paul Willis (1981) perceives clothes, cigarettes, and alcohol as the three great consumer goods distributed by capitalism ().  To a certain extent, it could be said that the teenagers are the victims of the late capitalism.  Nevertheless, it could be too that such goods actually embody their identities that speak of going against the norm.  Teenagers find excitement behind the act of smoking in non-smoking areas, e.g the school.  Excitement for them is a matter of “playing with the system” (1981).  It is a matter of being chased by authorities or playing hide-and-seek with them. They are actually making the authorities “work” (1981). 

 

            Violence or aggression is another element of teenage culture.  The lads love to make fun (or “laff”) of the ear’oles (1981).  In simpler terms, the former loves to bully the latter.  It is somehow the former’s way of awakening the latter, of teaching the latter to not merely just accept but to react.  There are more than just that.  According to Paul Willis (1981),

“In violence there is the fullest if unspecified commitment to a blind or distorted form of revolt.  It breaks the conventional tyranny of ‘the rule’.  It opposes it with machismo.  It is the ultimate way of breaking a flow of meaning which are unsatisfactory, imposed from above, or limited by circumstances.  It is one way to make the mundane suddenly matter. …They become permanent possibilities for the alleviation of boredom, and pervasive elements of a masculine style and presence ().” 

Thus, it is the machismo culture that has penetrated in them that they result to violence or aggression. 

 

            Teenagers have their own geographical spots.  They claim a specific space.  For instance in school, one can identify the library as the space of good student, while the hallways, cafeteria, stairs, parking lot, etc. are the spaces of the not-good-students.  Winning a physical space is part of their struggle against the school ( 1981. ).  The idea of space is not exclusive to the school, but also outside school.  In this age of digital technology, one of the popular hangouts of teenagers are internet cafes for online gaming.  These are their space and time at the same time.  They tend to cut their classes or make their own class schedules.  Thus, they disrupt the school order, as it is also a sign of poor performance for the school. 

 

            What has been discussed so far is believed to be the salient ones vis-à-vis teenage culture.  The theoretical position of Paul Willis on the issue of teenage culture is a structural one.  He has discovered the underlying structures within the acts and/or behaviour of teenagers in school and eventually out of school, which thus justifies them.  Their antisocial deeds speak for their contradiction against the dominant forces of society.  These forces intend to mold the young members to eventually preserve the system.  It is because of the penetration of this kind of culture that produces an oppositional teenage culture, or counter-school culture. 

 

In Response to John Fiske and Paul Willis in the Light of Creativity and Education

            John Fiske (1991) has construed the creativity of popular culture in such a way that it is “the art of making do” ().  One might be thinking that disfiguring jeans is matter of creativity; but according to this author, it is actually not.  But how about for those who just do so because they want to belong to the popular clothing style?  What about for those who just wear it because it appears attractive before their eyes, and are never really interested in searching for the history behind it?  By the “art of making do”, creativity is tied with the idea of intentionality.  I think there is indeed truth behind this view on creativity.  By the mere fact that I make creative objects, I intend to express something. 

 

            On the other hand, creativity, as viewed by Paul Willis (1981), is said to be a group act and not unique but intentional ().  Somehow, the thought is quite similar with John Fiske.  From both authors, I derived the idea that creativity not merely a form of expression, or expression for the sake of expression.  Creative products are produced out of nowhere.  Its producer has always obtained an idea of such kind of creative product from her or his conception of the operating structures in the society.  Spectators are tasked to search for the meanings behind that expression. 

 

            Paul Willis’ theoretical underpinning on teenage culture has created in me a feedback that there is a need for me to critically evaluate further the school or the social institution of education and the idea of schooling or being educated.  I believe that what he has said is just one of the ways to look at education.  There are some ideas in him that I concur; but his ideas in entirety, I do not think I can fully embrace them.  Thus, it must be clear at this point that I beg to disagree with his perspective. 

 

            Before anything else, I would like to critically evaluate the work of this author.  In the course of reading his book, it has generated in me a feeling that he or his book resounded .  It is as though the “working kids” take up arms against the middle class kids.  The capitalist system is oppressive to these working class kids.  The school is an avenue by which, one is going to acquire knowledge and the qualifications that are instrumental to the capitalist system.  However, the point of departure lies in his conception that these working class kids are the ones themselves responsible as to why they land on working class jobs (1981).  They themselves allow it to happen. 

 

            Paul Willis himself is a victim of one of his own propositions, which is about theories.  The working class kids have provided a somewhat Thrasymachean conception of theory in that, it is for the advantage of the stronger people.  Such view alone, which is supported by the author himself, is in itself a knowledge or theory that works advantageous for the weaker ones.  Theory is always for someone and for something.  What is contained in his book serves as a justification for the non-conformist behavior of this kind of teenagers. 

 

            I do not absolutely reject this exciting book by Paul Willis.  I stand in similar grounds with him with regard to his idea of cultural penetration.  Things go their ways because of the culture, and it penetrates itself toward the members of the society.  It is true that there is this culture above us that somehow dictates us how to be and to act.  However, one should be reminded that it is because of education too that there are progressive members of or activists in society. 

 

            Paul Willis’ book has led me to the realization that it would be necessary to think over the existence of schools.  What are indeed the functions of schools?  What are supposed to be the function of schools?  Nevertheless still, I believe that it is necessary to enter the school and be educated.  Schooling is an ought thing.  It is by being knowledgeable of these theories and ideologies that one will be able to identify the best strategies to counterattack the hegemonic forces. 

 

Conclusion

            The life and culture of teenagers have always associated with the idea of being unruly and chaotic.  They have been treated as the age group to police for.  Both authors stand in the structuralist ground.  Both of them have understood and brought into light the issues of teenage culture in accordance with the structures and meanings that lie beneath it.  From the viewpoint of John Fiske teenagers wear tattered jeans, party, drink, smoke, gather at the malls, fanaticize a certain icon, and so on and so forth as a means of refusing the order of things and feeling empowered.  Similarly, Paul Willis has found out that those teenage students who deviate from the conformists to the idea of schooling through bullying, cutting classes, wearing different clothes or disfiguring the school uniform, fighting, rejecting theories, etc. do so because these are the ways of rejecting the school, being the embodiment of the dominant culture.  Creativity is a matter of expression per se and expression of perspective at the same time.  Education or the school is indeed a socializing agent.  As such, it molds the young population to their social reality.  A teenager can look forward to it in changing the societal order accordingly.  Teenage culture may seem complex, yet meaningful. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Core Features of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Introduction

Autism is a disorder that is characterized by impairments in three broad domains namely, social, communication and repetitive or compulsiveness.  The prevalence of autism especially in the case of autism of children has prompted immediate attention not only to the families, but also to the government, medical institutions and educational institutions too, that necessitates them to collaboratively work together to ensure that an autistic child needs are really met.  In this paper, it discusses the essence of autism spectrum and as to what extent it impacts autistic children.  Also, it tackles as to how it affects the disparate domains of the developmental processes of an autistic child.  By being able to have sufficient knowledge with the essence and impacts of autism, it would serve as a cue, to both teachers and the therapist team to dedicatedly work together in the assessment, differentiation and the realization of the intellectual and communicative potential of an autistic child.  Any case of autism does not necessarily can be concluded that an autistic child is mentally retarded but it is just saying that they have several impairments that hamper their normal developmental growth.

 

Theoretical background:

Autistic spectrum, also known as an autism spectrum, is a biological disorder, although, diagnosed as a development and current behaviour disorder, pertains to a collective system that has an impact on the developmental and behavioural aspect which results from the combination of traits.  Autism, in the sense of the tight category defined by Kanner (1943), was thought to be a rare disorder, affecting four in 10,000 worldwide. In 1992, Fombonne (2002) says that the current 'best' estimate is one in 160, thus, making autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) the most common of the developmental disorders. In 1978, Rutter (1978) synthesized Kanner's original report and subsequent research in which he included in his definition of autism, the other essential features that characterizes autism, the early onset, impaired social development, impaired communicative development, and the unusual behaviours of the type Kanner had described.  From the definition of autism that falls into the criteria purported by Rutter (1978), encompasses the foundation of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3^rd edition or the DSM – III) definition of autism, in which it was included, for the first time, as part of a new class of disorders-the pervasive developmental disorders (American Psychological Association 1980).  Moreover, the DSM-IV definition entails the occurrence of at least six criteria that includes the group 1 criteria relating to at least two social abnormalities, group 2 relating to communication impairment and the group 3 that pertains to the range of interests and activities such that is onset on the conditions prior age 3.  Both The DSM-IV and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), has classified ASD as a pervasive developmental disorders (PDD).  Simply stated, the ASD and PDD are more or less synonymous to each other, but with certain distinctions between them.  By PDD it pertains to the developmental disorders in terms of psychological and behavioral aspects in which it covers the language, communication, self-help skills, motor coordination and executive functioning.  Overall, the concept of autism spectrum summed up the broad range of the clinical disparity in the fields of symptomatology, developmental, functioning, and varying treatment responses. Classic autism then inhere on the spectrum, thus, together with its related disorders is what have been referred to as the ASD.

The presence of distinct symptoms in autism is not accountable to the divergence ASD because seemingly is linked to other factors such as intelligence, adaptive functioning level and few numbers of autistic symptoms.  At the severe end of the autism spectrum lies the low-functioning autism which has profound impairments in many areas, to the conditions within the PDD class, like the Asperger's syndrome, high-functioning autism, Rett’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) and atypical autism, to "normal" behaviour and perhaps hypersocialization on one end of the spectrum, which is at its high end.

CORE FEATURES OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

SOCIAL DOMAIN

Within the social domain, the central to the feature of autism can be found in the lack of social reciprocity, inability to sense social relatedness, the disintegration of both verbal and nonverbal aspects, the development of selective friendships and the sharing of excitement, interests, and enjoyment with others (Filipek et al., 2000; Volkmar et al., 1999; Volkmar & Klin, 1999). In fact, the social domain is considered as the most salient and readily observable aspect, wherein in as early as 6 months old, it is already indicative of the possible occurrence of autism.  The toddler years, for instance, undergoes to the developmental process where toddlers gets to be exposed from social interaction and may at times seek for it, like wanting to have a playmate to play with.  An autistic child with the inability to reciprocate socially only tends to selectively make meaningful eye contact, accommodates to the certain voices and faces of others with a certain few, presumably whom they can recognize, unlike the typical developing peers.  Additionally, responsiveness in smiling may be nonexistent and the social imitative games, in which a typical toddler gets to enjoy a lot, mayhap only be largely one sided.  From the accrued studies of home-videotaped recording, emerges several evidence that supports the occurrence of early social deficits before autism recognition (Bernabei, Camaioni, & Levi, 1998; Osterling, Dawson, & Munson, 2002), as well as from prospective studies of very young children using standardized assessment tools (Baron-Cohen, Cox, Baird, Sweettenham, & Nightingale, 1996; Lord, 1995). In a study of 1-year-olds, for example, the raters “blind” to subject group membership revealed that children later identified as manifesting ASD looked at others and oriented to their names less frequently than did infants with mental retardation and typical social development (Osterling et al., 2002).  Similarly, Adrien et al. (1993) found out that the absence of social smiling and appropriate facial expressions by 1 year of age were predictive of autism.  The analyzed videotapes, in retrospection, exhibited that children aged between 9- to 12-month-olds exhibited impairments in visual orientation, sensitivity to tactile stimulation, and limited responsiveness to name, in contrast with typically developing children and those with developmental delays (Baranek, 1999), after which they have been diagnosed as having ASD. 

Fundamentally, children with autism are less likely to engage in observation, imitation, approaching and interaction with age-mates.  For example, in social settings such as play groups, wherein developed toddlers experiences a lot of fun, the autistic toddler, instead of getting into the fun tends to remain on the periphery of the said social activity and oftentimes are seen to exhibit interest in the exploration of the presence of inanimate world that surrounds them yet fail to grasp on imaginative and interactive play.  Thus, autistic individuals lack the fundamental ability to understand what others are thinking or expecting, to recognize verbal and nonverbal social cues, and to visually comprehend emotional expression (Baron & Cohen 1991).

Wing and Gould (1979) described three subtypes of children with autism: aloof, passive and active but odd or what otherwise is known to be the triad of impairments. Aloof children are described to have minimal interest in engaging into social interactions, unacquainted with the social world, avoidance of eye contact and irresponsive to verbal contact. The passive subtype refers to children showing less level of pleasure when in a social interactions, although, passively accept only the recognizable people they know of. Autistic children who are seen to be spontaneous in social approaches but these approaches are however, interpreted as odd.  The triad of impairments is descriptive as to how autism child behave and react into social situations in predictive ways. 

The extreme deficits in the social domain brought about by ASD can extend into some personality disorders as social autistic traits overlap.  A schizoid personality disorder, for example, refers to the detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression. Wolff and Chick (1980) described a group of children diagnosed with schizoid personality disorder as resembling those with Asperger's syndrome (form of PDD) but differentiating from children with ASD by the absence of delayed language development, emotional unresponsiveness, gaze avoidance, and ritualistic/compulsive behaviors.

Communication Domain

Within the communication domain, the presence of linguistic incapacity (which greatly varies across the spectrum) and nonverbal areas such as the basic of pragmatics and semantics are significantly impaired and are universal indicators among ASD.  Typical of an ASD is to primarily communicate their needs, desires, and preferences and not to express interest in others, or to the least share experiences and feelings. Thus, the social deficits of autism can at times contribute to abnormalities in some aspects of speech and language.  For example, in the modulation of intonation where it can be utilized in the expression of feelings, it is absent in ASD since feelings are not even experienced by ASD.  In addition, the speech and gestures of an ASD are disintegrated leading to awkward and uncomfortable social interactions.  Further, it is common among ASD preschool children that they are impaired in terms of symbolic functioning and that often goes along with serious limitations in pretense.  There are also impairments in the figurative and inferential language because of the fact that there are deficits in abstract and conceptual thought, the social reciprocity, in turn, is grossly impaired. The delay of development of spoken language is evident to people who have ASD though it is not implied that they do not at all develop spoken language.  In spite of ASD having has had developed language, they would still have inability to initiate and sustain a conversation. 

 

Repetitive Behaviours/Compulsivity Domain

The final domain comprises the restricted patterns in terms of behaviour, interests, and activities that is tantamount to repetition.  Compulsive behaviours, on the other hand, pertain to the craving for likeness, the want for uniformity, hoarding, and the like. ASD children falls into the context being regarded as difficult children that is describe as resistant to changed or settle for preferences that adheres to routine tasks or activities.  Children with ASD may fall into the category of difficult children, but there case, though, does not mean that they are bad rather they are the type of difficult children who needs special attention that needs to be closely looked into.  Moreover, compulsive symptoms often persist into adulthood and can include stereotypic pacing, rocking, preservation, stuttering, need for sameness, and narrow repetitive interests (Rumsey et al. 1985).  Let us not confuse the compulsivity domain of ASD with children diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder (OSD), even though the nature of the obsessions and compulsions of ASD shares similarities, they still do differ from OCD.  From a study by McDougle et al. (1995) compared the types of obsessions and compulsions exhibited by adults with autism and adults with OCD, results has shown that the autism group, the compulsions are the one that are common than the obsession unlike the OCD group.  Hypersensitivity to various sense stimuli is another sensory deficit feature of ASD.  Even the lowest incident can cause ASD children to react distressfully and discomfort towards the incident, thus, seemingly conveys pain physically.

 

Main Part:

Despite of ASD not being considered a medical illness, the fact that they cause abnormalities in the neuro-developmental aspect of a child affecting the normal functioning of social, communicative and behavioural domains, it is apparent to forego early screening and diagnosis.  Recent years, efforts have been made to identify ASD as early as possible, in order to begin implementing appropriate educational and treatment interventions; providing families with education, support, and community resources; and reducing the stress and anxiety families experience as a result of incorrect or misleading diagnoses (Filipek et al., 1999). The importance of an early diagnosis is supported by several findings of improved linguistic, cognitive, and adaptive functioning as a result of intensive early intervention (Harris & Delmolino, 2002; Pelios et al., 2001; Pelios & Lund, 2001; Rogers, 1998; Schreibman, 2000).  However, there have been cases that even the experienced clinicians made false negative diagnoses.  The age group of children has been quite difficult to diagnose (Charman & Baird 2002) states that within this age group, the most difficult diagnostic distinction is between autism and developmental language disorders.  Diagnosis of the broader range of ASD is less reliable, as has been found for older samples (Klin, Lang, Cicchetti, &Volkmar, 2000; Mahoneyetal., 1998; Volkmar etal., 1994) making the less severe ASD susceptible to be misdiagnosed as having developmental or only a language delay.  With the possibility of misdiagnoses to incur, the need to have an accurate diagnosis is invaluable such that it apparently provides investigators, clinicians, educators, and parents to communicate precisely as to what countermeasures they can do.  According to Charman & Baird (2002), accuracy depends on the completion of a comprehensive, interdisciplinary assessment, one that includes the use of standardized diagnostic instruments in conjunction with clinical expertise. A diagnosis that is valid and reliable brings in valuable information about the strengths and weakness in the developmental aspect, prognosis both short and long-term and appropriate effective treatments.

ASD as exhibiting limitations in the functioning of developmental areas can be assessed through a developmental functional approach that encompasses the relevant areas in relation to developmental functioning.  Functional developmental approach enables teachers and therapist to explore on the necessary areas that has been hampered by ASD, which in turn, would give them additional information to better improve their assessments and interventions for children with ASD.  The Development, Individual-Difference, Relationship-Based (DIR) model (Greenspan 1992; Greenspan & Wieder 1998) is a functional development model that can aid in the identification of the relevant areas of functioning and in the construction of a functional developmental profile for ASD children, thus, providing the developmental framework necessary for the  assessment and intervention process.  Further, the DIR model can peek on the child’s developmental capacities via the context of biological processing profile, family relationships and the interactive patterns that is useful to better explain the child’s behavior with ASD.  By using the DIR model, teachers and therapists can have a means to identify certain developmental levels and to gauge whether they have been settled or foresee the deficit that is present in any of the six levels.  After which, having had identified the deficits or the unsettled aspect in the developmental level, both can work on as to how to negotiate and improve on the deficit on that certain developmental level that has been impaired and strengthen the developmental areas that excels.  In addition to the functional developmental levels, DIR model also place emphasis on the constitutional-maturational characteristics that can be observed through the differences in the individual processing like in the sensory processing or the motor planning and sequencing.  A mother of a child with ASD, for example, expresses anger by raising her voice.  An autistic kid, having difficulty to see the big picture emotionally, can interpret the situation as something rude since he cannot grasp what is the truth behind of what has been happening.  From the example, teachers and therapist can view on the child as having a strong auditory processing although exhibiting weak on the visual-spatial processing because of the inability to see the congruency as to how it fits together.

In regards to assessing the intellectual aspect of ASD children, the cognitive and neuropsychological evaluations will be of great help as well.  As both evaluations are also essential for school personnel in the formulation of Individual Education Plans (IEP), and are invaluable in supporting educational placement decisions such as special-education placement, full inclusion in school and the like.  Cognitive evaluation yields vital information in the areas of child's abilities, disabilities, strengths, and weaknesses. A research from Filipek et al. (1999) has revealed that specific cognitive profiles of individuals with ASDs, including spared performance on tasks that are rote, mechanical, or perceptual, and impaired performance on tasks that are complex or abstract. As suggested from the profile, relative strengths in task-specific constitute simple memory, visual-spatial problem solving, and visual reasoning. Relative weaknesses, on the other hand, include those in fine motor skills, complex information processing, verbal comprehension, and planning (Minshew et al. 1998). An example of a cognitive evaluation test for ASD is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) (Wechsler 1991) in which it can accrue information revealing the attention, memory, visual-spatial problem solving, abstract thinking, processing speed, fund of information, and comprehension functioning.  Similarly, Sparrow et al. (1984) test called Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) consists of four adaptive domains classifications of communication, daily living skills, socialization and motor skills, can evaluate the social deficits of ASD (Loveland & Kelly 1998; Rodrigue et al. 1991) and relative strengths in daily living (Carter et al. 1998).  Moving on, children with autism shows varying neuropsychological impairments particularly, the explicit and working memory, establishing rules, planning, and response inhibition (Filipek et al. 1999; Dawson 1996; Dawson et al. 1998). The evaluation of attention, executive functions, praxis, and visual processing can guide teachers and therapist in the treatment and educational strategies that would be aim at the ASD child's individual strengths and weaknesses, and, to a less extent, may predict outcome.

As researchers continue to gather new information pertaining to the characteristics and needs of students with autism as they progress through the educational process, from birth to adulthood (Wetherby & Prizant, 2000). Given the fact that a child with ASD greatly varies in their cognitive, language and social abilities, therapist and teachers must determine them on an individual basis.  Highly structured instructional programming is deemed necessary to increase the skills of children with ASD that would equip them of the pertinent skills essential to prepare them for everyday living.  Moreover, assessment should always be ongoing to consistently monitor the effectiveness of the selected program and ensure that there would be progress for the child with ASD.  Therefore, it evokes teachers and therapist to consider factors like age, ability level, learning style, behavioural and communicative repertoire, and the like upon selection of realistic educational goals for children with ASD.

 

Conclusion:

 

            The broad-spectrum of autism impacts the children extremely in the developmental aspects, specifically, social, communication and the repetitive/compulsivity domain, has a great impact in the normal functioning of a child.  Further, the developmental aspects are seemingly dependent from each other, such that a deficit in the social domain can cause a deficit in the communication domain as well.

            In the social domain, children with ASD manifest impairments that can be mirrored and observed generally when there is lack of desire for friendship, social awkwardness, avoidance of eye contact, gullibility and less pleasure in the social interaction.  The communication domain impairments, on one hand, describes an ASD child, as having an odd prosody of speech, overly formal and pedantic language, very delayed or no language development and the very poor understanding of nonverbal communication is evident.  Lastly, the imaginative impairment includes concreteness and literal use of language, poor comprehension of abstracts, metaphors and symbolism, routing preference and the inability to grasp coherence of a whole concept.  It is importantly noting that the severe indicator of ASD is when there is an increase in the number of occurrence of autistic traits.  The diagnoses for ASD must be at all times accurate for they are very critical in the assessment and intervention process for the teachers and therapist to appropriately formulate a certain approach to help children with ASD.

            Children with ASD are undoubtedly considered special children with special needs.  It is important for people to understand and not be misled of the fact that ASD is a developmental disorder that causes several impairments and cannot be precipitously concluded as mentally retarded children.  Teachers and therapist should work on together, including the full support of the family and the aid of government, in the assessment and intervention of ASD.  Children with ASD, at such a tender age, means that they are from the start deprived of many things, thus, there would always be a need to provide them special care and attention.

 

New York is an Enigma?

New York is an enigma, a rock star, a celebrity among all cities in the world. So much have been said and have been written about her. The city appeared in movies, in its own Broadway plays, and many songs have been sung for the great New York, but still it seems that the city is the most misunderstood city of all. New York is arguably the most famous or infamous city, depending on which perspective we are, in the whole world.

            Two different stories, two different times, and one city is more than enough to inspire two individuals to write about the schizophrenia of New York. Schizophrenia, because New York is a city of different personality, different moods, and according to many, one can never be too familiar with New York. “Pregnant in New York” and “New York, 1936” are but two glimpses of the many different kinds of New York to many different people.

            Ralph Ellison’s “New York, 1936” is an account of the city’s personality at the turn of the century and the author’s amazement and awe of his first few days in the great city of New York. The American writer Ralph Waldo Ellison was born in Oklahoma City, on Mar. 1, 1914. He achieved international fame with his first novel, Invisible Man in 1952 (Benston, 1986).   In 1936 he moved to New York City, where he met the novelist Richard Wright, and became associated with the Federal Writers' Project, publishing short stories and articles in such magazines as New Challenge and New Masses.

            Ellison hailing from the South saw racial discrimination as part of everyday life. Add to that the problems of Great Depression during the decade, whites called for blacks to be fired from their jobs as long as there where whites out of work. Because of this racial violence erupted especially in the South (American Memory Timeline). This prompted, among many other reasons for Ellison to move to New York. New York being a melting pot of races and ethnicities all around the world was a little more indifferent to cultural differences that black and white Americans can co-exist, albeit strangers.

            Racial segregation was common in many parts of America during that time, that in extreme cases, public facilities and transportations often label people through skin color (Silverman, 1998). But in New York, it was different, in fact according to Ellison, it was as if he was transported to the Eden of American culture for he was actually free to do whatever he likes (watching a theater which actually plays the struggle of the blacks in the South) and as to wherever he wants to go (riding a bus without being told to sit at the back, which was a common practice in the South) though he also said that his freedom is not absolute for he was personally restrained by himself unconsciously, that in escaping discrimination from the South, he brought it along to New York where he viewed the city dwellers through the overlay of his own Southern experience. Racial segregation was definitely a big niche in his childhood that New York could not erase easily.

            Pregnant in New York by Anna Quindlen is a poignant story written in a humor-filled-with-sarcasm prose against male machismo in New York. The author, Anna Quindlen is a novelist, social critic, and Pulitzer Prize-winning Columnist. She is the author of Object Lessons, One True Thing, and Black and Blue.

            Pregnant in New York is a story not only focused on difficulties of pregnancy which is even made more difficult by being in New York, but it also tackles a wider issue, specifically being a woman along the streets of New York. Quindlen exposed New York as a place where most lives are anonymous and indifferent to each other. New York, according to her, has no pity and is always engage in a rat race. And in that race it’s a man to his own, and she being pregnant (herself and a half) seemed to be always a step behind.

            Though in New York, one could actually do anything as he pleases, privacy is another issue. In fact, according to Quindlen”everyone is right up against everyone else and they all feel compelled to say what they think” that privacy is no longer an issue because there really is no privacy in the city. The author narrates her experience with the deli countermen where she gets unwarranted and rude comments just because she is pregnant. New York, famous for the yellow cabs are also infamous for not picking up pregnant women, because according to Quindlen they could be afraid or they don’t just like it when pregnant women delivers inside their cars. So most of the time, pregnant women have to take public transportation which are usually crowded and where women pregnant or not wont have to expect male gallantry by offering his seat.

            The streets of New York are also famous for thugs and muggers, which in sarcasm the author felt that muggers in the city could take anything from anyone, even her baby, and that’s how dangerous the streets are especially to women who are generally pitied as defenseless. And a very typical New Yorker would alone in the street would look for a group not for social necessity but for protection, ignoring the fact that they are strangers to one another. And after the perceived danger is gone, they are back to being individuals indifferent with each other.

 

The New Europe and Old Europe

The Old Europe

European society was largely dominated by rich, hereditary, landed oligarchies. Most of the members of these groups also enjoyed nobility. Human society has never existed without élites, but those of the post-industrial world are numerous, diverse, and difficult to assess in their relative importance. Before 1800 matters were much simpler. Most wealth, most power, most privilege, and most prestige tended nearly everywhere to be concentrated in the hands of a single social group, universally recognizable. Like all social categories, it was considerably blurred at the edges, with an infinite number of local variations. No one term used by historians--aristocracy, landed interest, privileged order, feudal class--captures its full character. Yet the reality was concrete enough. It was the basic feature of social organization throughout Europe.

The French state was held to comprise three orders or estates:--the clergy, the nobility, and the third estate (Forsythe, 1994). This division originated in the medieval organization of society into those who prayed, those who fought, and those who worked. The nobility had done the fighting--noblemen still regarded the military career as peculiarly their own. Nevertheless in practice the nobility seldom invoked any justification other than the fact that it existed and always had. When the estates-general, representing all the king's subjects, met, the nobility and clergy elected their own representatives and sat in separate houses. The nobility had a complex internal hierarchy of titles. At the top