Thinking Made Easy

Potential and Problems due to Internet in School Education

Potential and Problems due to Internet in School Education

 

            What potential and problems do you associate with the use of the Internet in School Education? How might the maximum potential be achieved in this area?

            In these days of technological advances, internet is said to be the most powerful educational tool that would transform the traditional form of education. The internet can provide different options of education instructions. Even distance education is possible with the use of the internet. The Internet is a technological breakthrough which allows us to talk to people in other states without the long distance charges, allows us to purchase products without having to go to the store, and in which allows us to get information about almost any topic without having to go to the library.

            Nowadays, internet use in school education has rapidly becoming the mainstream component of educational instruction. The Internet becomes the solution to problems on low level of educational opportunities due to geographical location, school size, demographics of income and race/ethnicity, budgeting constraints, and substandard teachers.

            Primarily, internet is used to search and find information. The Internet is being used as a high-tech encyclopedia. The Internet is similar with a very huge library with all the sources you may need to find the information you needed. Students may look up for information in the internet just like in the libraries.

            According to  (2001), the ability to deliver full-length courses and class work online will upend traditional and long-enduring notions of school and teachers will no longer be expected to be experts in academic subjects. Instead, they will serve as guides to learning, facilitators to help students discover what they need to know rather than serve as original sources of information.

            Moreover, as  (2001) states, the school campus of the future will cease to be the place where you go to specifically learn academics but rather, students will attend campus to counterbalance the social isolation and alienation that will come from the increasing amount of time they will spend in front of computer and TV screens. The role of school will change to become more of a social and activity center where students learn social skills through participation in group activities (2001). Students are usually bored and dissatisfied with the traditional type of instruction which have been the case for over a century. The Online education plays as the catalyst in this case.

            However, not all students are Internet literate. Problems  had came out that some of the students or people were slow or not connected to the Internet or they only used computers only for games. Some students didn't know how to really operate them. They didn’t even know how to receive email or send attachments. These start up a problem. It instead ended up doing a lot of computer instruction first. Instructions on computer operation are needed and these would take time. However, there students who are in the mid- to lower-third of achievement tend to do well with this technology if they are motivated because distance learning gives them more time. They're not constrained to the classroom. Also, another problem is that technology is available but it is still expensive. But in some ways, wherein you can't find teachers to handle the more advanced courses, such as calculus or physics in small, rural school districts because of limited resources, but through the Web or a satellite system, it could tap into courses designed and offered elsewhere.  The internet continues to be integrated into Science classrooms at a torrid pace, with utilities such as virtual field trips, collaborative problem solving with students from all over the world, theme-based courses, and structured online learning (1997).

            One of the biggest attractions of an online education is the ability to learn at any time (1995). Today information about earthquakes, bombings, trials, and election results can be disseminated world wide almost instantly. The point is communication capabilities are changing very quickly. The Web provides a forum for such instant communication. A document can be posted at one location in the world and retrieved almost instantly in another part of the world. Text, pictures, graphics, and even animations can be transmitted nearly instantly from one location to another.

            According to (1996), maintaining a Web site is somewhat like publishing a paper, a book, a video, or links to other sites. Such sites can also support many forms of interaction. Having near instant access, independent of time, location, age, social, or economic status, to a world of Web sites is what constitutes the Web. Such sites are using common code that can be translated by a Web browser. Never before have we had such capabilities through direct access. It is only a matter of time until the Web will be processing real time action, video, audio, and online dialogues, and in some cases these already exist (2001).

            In the contrary to these potentials of Internet, knowledge is dynamic rather than some fixed amount of information. What people believe is truth at one time, changes with new discoveries. Changes in the communication systems and dissemination of information are occurring very quickly. If people know how to get knowledge and how to interpret it, they can continue to learn and grow through lifelong learning.

            Moreover, the Internet poses significant problems for parents and educators. Using online technologies, students have the capability to communicate with individuals or groups across the globe in which some of whom might mask their identities, genders, and motives. The students might be in danger with the people they come in contact with in the Internet. Indeed, over the past few years, many families have no doubt been shocked to learn that their teenage sons or daughters have suddenly left home to rendezvous with their online "lover" whom they have never seen (1995). Furthermore, pornography is also available in the Internet and students are potentially dangerous.

 

            The traditional way of instruction emphasizes teaching, wherein the teacher is the sole source of knowledge, and the students wait for the information to flow from the teacher. With the knowledge explosion happening at the current rate and with instant communications, that model of instruction may not be the most affective model for helping students gain knowledge. There has a shift from teaching to learning that can allow students to develop skills for lifelong learning such as learning how to search for and gather knowledge, and whether the knowledge is making any sense.

            In the older means of instruction, a systematic approach to teaching involved content being carefully broken into subtasks and taught one by one. An alternative approach would be to present the students with a problematic situation and figure out how to gather information and pursue the solution to that problem.

            The usual instructional design model that is often used involves a linear process of teaching or learning where outcomes are identified, instruction is broken into sub goals or tasks and taught one by one. Many of the major skills to acquire, such as problem solving, communication, or thinking, are not simple outcomes to develop nor can they be easily taught. Teaching and learning needs to be rethought as more of a recursive rather than linear process, where emphasis is upon the big ideas and realization that they will not be developed instantly ( 2001). Such skills need to be developed at deeper and deeper levels through recursive cycles.

            Careful thought needs to be given to how students can best develop their major skills and what are the major skills for the future. “Control is a major issue,” suggested  (2001).

            Also, one more comment concerning the teaching or learning process for disadvantaged students, particularly economically disadvantaged students, it is extremely important that schools help these students take advantage of the changes being brought on by technology. The more economically advantaged students will likely be able to benefit from the technological changes outside of school settings, where the economically disadvantaged students will not. Similarly, culturally diverse and special needs' students also need to be actively involved in changes being brought on by technology.

            There will also be changes in the learning environment as mentioned by  (2001). Shifting from thinking about teaching in a classroom alone to conceptualizing a classroom without walls also is feasible in the future because of the presence of evolving technology. We will no longer need to have desks in a classroom all lined up in rows and columns waiting for the knowledge to be handed down from the teacher with everyone working on the same page of the textbook at the same time. In many cases, a book is out of date before it even rolls off the printing press, as enormous amounts of information become available on the Web. Current events provide a number of opportunities for students to learn up-to-date information. Students can become far more active pursuing knowledge and solutions to problems and activities. Students can also be engaged in a variety of topics rather than everyone doing exactly the same thing. Students can become more active searchers of information rather than waiting for the teacher to transmit it to them.

            According to  (2001), there will also be changes in skills and curriculum. Shifts can occur in curriculum from closed to an open curriculum, where doors of opportunity for investigations are opened. There would be an assurance that teachers are not teaching out-of-date information (2001). Students will be able to access teachers' assignments and curriculum while in the classroom, the library, or home or anywhere they have an Internet connection. They can work collaboratively on projects or individual homework requirements.

            Contrary to these potentials of the use of Internet, cheating and plagiarism is now widespread in school. According to  (2004), students are downloading essays and assignments from the internet. Thousands of essay banks and coursework sites have sprung up on the internet in recent years, with A-grade papers just a few clicks of a button away from computer-literate teenagers. With pressure to produce top grades growing on both pupils and schools, the temptation to pass off someone else's work is high. External markers, who have no idea of an individual student's writing style, often have no way of differentiating between copied and original work. The problem of internet copying is so great among undergraduates in the country's universities and colleges.

            On  research, he has found out that there are websites where you can buy coursework off the shelf. Thousands of websites now exist offering ready-made coursework in different subjects. Some sites sell their essays, while on others work can be accessed for free. Some even offer to tailor the work to fit past records of grades, saying that that way the cheating will be harder to spot. For teenagers who have grown up regarding the internet as a huge on-line library, the temptation to take work from the web and pass it off as their own has often proved too strong.

            In the article of  in (2004),  manager of the Plagiarism Advisory Service concluded that much of the problem stems from the belief among young people that the internet is a no-limits source of information. She said that "there is now so much information available to students and pupils, and a lot of them don't seem to understand that they need to show where they've got things from. They understand that if they're copying something from a book or a journal they have to acknowledge that. There's less appreciation that it's just the same when information comes from a website,”she added. According to her, it's part of a wider culture. Teenagers are downloading music files and sharing them left, right and centre with their friends and they think it's the same with essays. When coursework questions are set, everyone knows what they're doing and how to find information. The questions are often general enough for people to be able to find some sort of answer on an essay bank ( 2004).

            In  report on  (2003), pointed out a new study by a North lecturer,  claims that using the internet at school can lead to teenagers losing their confidence and becoming frustrated. Most teenagers lack the more complex information gathering skills necessary for internet searching, ultimately using the internet inefficiently, says  of   has completed a four-year research study into the subject.

            According to (2003) report,  states that “while the internet is an amazing resource, kids need to be empowered with the information literacy skills to be able to use the internet properly. Problems has compounded for the teenagers blaming themselves for failing to use the internet effectively. Teenagers blame themselves for unable to find the information they are looking for, added

            Internet in school education has enormous potential to improve the level of education of students in most cases but still it should be considered that there are also problems that might be encountered. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment: Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

 

An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:

Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

 

Introduction

This paper reviews a more traditional treatment of intonation in my adult beginnerlevel-

class textbooks and suggests an alternative approach to intonation by raising

awareness of its message-conveying function and by focusing on the speakers’ selection

of intonation in context. In the first half, the traditional approach to prosodic features

is referred, followed by the outline of the discourse intonation theory including the

description of the key elements. The stress-timed rhythm theory is briefly introduced

for later reference when reviewing the intonation in the textbooks, which is discussed

in the second half of the paper. The discourse-based framework is communicativeoriented,

however, this paper does not encourage teachers to totally discard the explicit

way of teaching or the use of textbooks and tapes that are often regarded as nonnaturalistic.

By utilizing the dialogues and recordings, an attempt is made to help

adult beginner-level learners deliberately draw their attention to the meaning and

function of intonation and help them become aware of its communicative value.

Traditional Explicit Instruction by Presenting Rules

Unlike young learners or children who are generally considered capable of implicitly

perceiving the pronunciation and intonation of a foreign language, adult or mature

learners seem to need more or less explicit learning and practice. Learning experience

of information being given in previous classroom experience and their intellectual

maturity make them expect explicit explanations or instruction of the target language

system ( 1981). This explanation seems plausible and the phenomenon

is a common reality for ELT practitioners in adult learners’ class.

What makes difference between explicit and implicit learning is the presence of

awareness: learning with or without awareness (2005). Explicit instruction is

usually adopted in grammar teaching context, and the grammar-translation method is

the embodiment of explicit instruction, in which learners learn the rules of grammar

and memorize vocabulary. They try labeling the elements as S, V, C, O, and arranging

them in a grammatically and structurally correct manner. The textbook presents a list

of vocabulary and its translation. The method is still most widely used ( 2005),

and a remark in the past that teachers as well as many learners view explicit explanations

as short-cuts ( 1981) has even now currency. However, the exclusive

study of the form and structure of words and sentences will not complete the teaching

and learning of a language. In reality, a sentence cannot be fully analyzed without

closely looking at the context. Grammatical form and its function do not always

correspond, but work in harmony (1991).

The similar approach has been taken in teaching and learning the English sound

system, as the rules are presented and correct pronunciation as suggested in a dictionary

is required. The English language has been treated to have stress-timed rhythm

(1994;  1993), which implies that stressed syllables tend to occur

at relatively regular intervals, falling on the main information-carrying items; weak

forms often have reduced vowel sounds (1993). However, there

is no firm evidence (1991;  1991). As for intonation, pitch movement

has also been traditionally treated as being fixed in relation to the form of a sentence:

the wh-􀀁question has a falling tone, while the yes-no question has a rising tone. As

apparent in real interaction, however, the wh-􀀁question can have a rising tone, and a

falling tone can be used for the yes-no question form.

Awareness on Form along with Meaning and Discourse Intonation Approach

What is necessary for passing and receiving the speaker’s message in interaction? It is

needless to mention of the ability to distinguish sound as a meaningful unit of a

particular language; words should be pronounced appropriately so that listeners will

be able to distinguish them as words of a particular language. Even though words are

distinguishable, there are cases that a message is not understandable. In order to

understand a message, intention, or purpose of the speaker, not only the form but also

context that allows the listener to create imagination is necessary

(2003). Also from the pedagogical point of view, an approach to pragmatics instruction

is to raise learners’ awareness of a particular form, what is more important, in a

meaningful way. The relation between form and function of prosodic features such as

stress and intonation should be treated in context, as a sentence in written text cannot

be fully analyzed without referring to the physical, social, and psychological world in

which it takes place. The totality of all the above elements interacting is referred as

discourse (1989). In conversation, which is an excellent example of the interactive

and interpersonal nature of communication in spoken discourse ( 1994), the

time dimension should be taken into account for analysis, since participants jointly

contribute to the context of interaction. Discourse intonation (DI) theory supposes

intonation to play a crucial part in the pursuit of communicative purpose with regard

to communicative value (1992). On-going real-time selection of intonation by

the speaker is given focus, by taking into consideration the common ground between

the speaker and the listener. The context of interaction includes the shared knowledge

between the speaker and the listener, not only limited to the shared awareness of what

has been said before between the participants or personal closed relationship at a

specific time and place between the participants, but also extended to a wider context

of the mutual understanding of their society.

The attempt in my class is to apply the discourse intonation concept-how

prosodic features are related to one another in discourse meaning-to beginner-level

class, by referring to PALE (Pronunciation for Advanced Learners of English, 1994a,

1994b). The course is designed by Brazil for learners in written-text advanced level,

takes an inductive approach and aims at raising awareness of how the intonation and

pronunciation systems really work in communication; thereby, learners can have

insight into how speech conveys messages. In my class, the intonation system is

explicitly provided, focusing on the meaningful selection of its form. For a rule of

moderate level or a little above in difficulty, the role of explicit instruction will be

effective and more important (2005). The rule difficulty is an individual and

subjective issue, though. It is also supposed that the availability of imagination helps

them link form and function.

The key elements of the design are ‘tone unit’, ‘prominent syllables’, ‘tone’, and

‘key/termination’. The prominence fixes the domain of the three variables of key,

termination, and tone, all of which contribute to the communicative value of the tone

unit (1997). Their description follows in the next section.

Tone Unit and Prominent Syllables

The basic meaningful block is defined as ‘tone unit’: speech is a sequence of tone units,

not a sequence of words. Each tone unit has one or two ‘prominent syllables’. A definite

line should be drawn between the concept of ‘prominence’ and that of ‘stress’. Stress

of a word is a citation form in a dictionary; therefore, it is fixed. It does not have

significance on its own. The allocation of prominence is variable and meaningful.

When words are combined to produce a meaningful phrase or clause, some syllables

become prominent to show significance to the listener in interaction. There are cases

that the basic agreement according to the inherent rules of the English language system

does not allow prominence as in the example ‘He wanted to find it’, in which ‘to’ will

usually never be highlighted; however, on which syllable or word prominence is given

should be decided by the speaker according to the DI theory. In compound nouns, for

example, the most familiar type is the combination of two nouns, and the stress is

normally placed on the first word. However, both patterns of either stress on first or

second word are found ( 1991). In the DI approach, it is the speaker who makes

the meaningful choices of words to be contained in one tone unit to show special

significance in a particular intonation in preference to another, keeping the listener in

mind. ‘Speakers are constantly making assumptions about what will and what will not

amount to a selection in the here-and-now state of communicative understanding

they share with the hearer(s)’ (1995). If a particular word is fairly predictable

by the listener, the speaker does not assign prominence to it. The following cases,

therefore, are possible: ‘bad-TEMpered’, ‘a BAD-tempered TEACHer’, ‘TEACHers

who are bad-TEMpered’, or ‘we HAVE a bad-tempered TEACHer ’ (prominent

syllables are indicated in upper-case letters. The last prominent syllable in a tone unit

is underlined as well).

Tone

‘Tone’ is also the speaker’s selection based on whether the utterance to be made would

be common ground or news to the listener. While prominence is treated as an attribute

of a word, tone attributes to the whole of a tone unit: it starts at the last prominent

syllable in a tone unit and continues to the end. Table 1 compares the meaning of tone

choices and their description. A referring tone is selected when there is an assumption

that the meaning can be taken for granted by the listener, or in questions to make sure

about some information. A proclaiming tone is selected when the information is

imagined to be new, or an inquiry is made to the listener. These two tones have two

versions respectively. What makes the two versions meaningfully distinctive is the rolerelationships

in the context of interaction. The dominant speaker may use a rising tone

and a rise-fall tone to show control over interaction. In informal ‘social’ conversations,

however, the speaker sometimes prefers a fall-rise tone to reduce friction and to be

friendly to the listener. In making inquiries beginning with ‘perhaps’ or ‘I wonder’, a

falling tone is preferred to avoid an unpleasant atmosphere, not to sound as though

the speaker has already made an assumption about the reply (Brazil 1994a, 1994b).

Finally, selecting a level tone implies that the speaker is carefully selecting words and

taking time to put the language together, or is mentally preparing for the next step.

Therefore, a level tone tends to be followed by a pause.

Orientation Meaning

Description

Others

PALE (1994a, 1994b) DI code (1997)

Direct

(towards the

listener)

Referring

(common ground)

➚ (rising) r+ Dominant

➘➚ (fall-rise) r

Proclaiming

(news)

➘ (falling) p

➚➘ (rise-fall) p+ Dominant

Oblique (towards

the language) Opt out ➙ (level) o

Table 1. Five Tones and Their Meanings

Key and Termination

The pitch-level system also contributes to the description of intonation and projects

the relevant utterances made by participants. The pitch level can be realized by three

keys of ‘high’, ‘mid’, and ‘low’, which are indicated with an upward or downward

arrow; key height is relative, though. The description differs depending on where the

key movement occurs. While the choice of pitch level on the first prominent syllable

is called a choice of ‘key’, the choice of pitch level on the last syllable is called a choice

of ‘termination’. The same as tone selection, key selection attributes to a tone unit as a

whole. There is distinction in meaning associated with them. While the key refers back

to the preceding utterance, the termination usually refers forward to the utterance

assumed to come next in the discourse. The key selection of either ‘high’, ‘mid’, and

‘low’ projects ‘contrasting, particularizing, or adjudicating’, ‘asserting or concurring’,

and ‘equating’ implications of the speaker respectively under the context of

interaction.

The second half of the paper discusses the treatment of intonation in the textbooks

used in my beginner-level and compares it with PALE’s accounts of intonational

meaning. Follow is a case study of applying PALE’s concept by utilizing some of the

textbook’s dialogues and tape recordings. While using textbooks is often criticized

from the perspective of authenticity, there is, on the other hand, a claim that the DI

theory does provide an answer to the problems caused by the practice of recorded

utterances (1997).

Review of Textbooks Regarding Treatment of Intonation

The textbooks examined are East West Basics ( 1994) and New Person to

Person Student Book 1 and New Person to Person Student Book 2

( 1995) used in my beginner-level classes.

Textbooks Treatment of Intonation

East West Basics Pronunciation focus activity is provided. Students are suggested they

repeat after the tape.

Yes-no questions and wh-􀀁 questions have rising and falling tones

respectively, and they are fixed.

Word stress is fixed. Handclapping is suggested on the stressed

syllable.

Sentences have the same rhythm. Rhythm has regular beats.

Unstressed syllables in multi-syllable words usually have reduced

sound.

Rise-fall and rising tones are introduced in questions, however,

without explanation.

Reply to a question (whichever, yes-no or wh-􀀁questions) is divided

into units, accompanied by a comma. They always have a falling

tone.

Speaking with the tape is suggested.

New Person to Person

Student Book 1

Pronunciation focus activity is provided.

In compound nouns, the first noun has heavier stress and a higher

pitch.

In normal speech, ‘to’, ‘and’, ‘are’, and ‘do’ are unstressed. The vowel

has reduced sound.

Words that carry stress usually have more important meaning than

the other words in a sentence.

Wh- questions have a falling tone.

Stressed words in a sentence usually compose a regular beat.

Words that require attention are in italics.

New Person to Person

Student Book 2

Pronunciation focus activity is provided.

Word stress is fixed.

Words that carry stress usually have important meaning.

Listening practice to stressed and unstressed words in sentences and

phrases is suggested.

‘can’ is usually unstressed. The vowel has reduced sound.

Words that require attention are in italics.

Table 2. Treatment of Pronunciation and Intonation

Their treatment, as it is obvious in Table 2, is rather a PPP (presentation, practice, and

production) one. The textbooks do elicit learners’ attention to particular features of

intonation, however, none of them are given relative values according to context but

important meaning on stressed words. Mapping the form to meaning and function is

not provided either. They demonstrate the word stress (accented syllable) to be fixed

and the English language speech has rhythm with a regular beat on stressed words.

Compound nouns in New Person to Person Student Book 1 have stress on the first noun,

which is fixed. The term ‘stress’ is used interchangeably between ‘an accented syllable’

and ‘a prominent syllable’. The tone of wh- questions is given a conventional treatment,

that is, the wh-􀀁 question form has a falling tone. In one example with a question

starting with ‘which’, it is obvious from the context that the speaker’s intention is

confirmation; the speaker already has some expectations about the reply. Under a

particular situation, the tone to be selected could be a referring one. Regarding the

output side, repetition after the tape and handclapping to acquire the rhythm are

suggested.

Analysis in Discourse-based Framework and Suggestion of Applying PALE

Concept

The following extract is from the recording attached to the textbook. With an encoding,

the selection of prominence, tone, and key is analytical described to draw learners’

attention to the meaning of intonation in communicative contexts (see Table 1 for the

meaning of the codes). The pronunciation focus activity provided in the textbook would

give learners the impression that intonation is fixed and makes a regular rhythmical

sound (see Table 2). However, some dialogue on the tape can show the difference of

intonation related to the meaning in context. The tape usually has the rather exaggerated

and slow recording, which may be suitable for deliberately drawing attention to

discourse intonation for beginner-level students ( 1997).

East West Basics

TUESDAY

(1) G: // ➘➚ THAT was FUN! //

(2) B: // ➘➚ yes, it WAS.// // ➘➚ you’re very GOOD.//

// ➘ how OFten do you PLAY ?//

(3) G: // ➘ oh, about TWICE a WEEK.// // ➘ how about YOU?//

(4) B: // ➘➚ about TWICE // ➚ a  YEAR!//

The previous dialogue tells that the girl and the boy are talking about the tennis game

they just played (refer to Appendix). In spite of the stress-timed rhythm theory that the

textbook presumably supports, the recording is rather different (this itself gives

confusion). Replies (3) and (4) show easy examples of ‘selective’ prominence: the

number of times and the time duration are selected among various choices. The

difference is the boy’s ‘high’ key selection on the prominent syllable. He is contrasting

what it is actually the case with what the girl might expect, by using the same word

pattern as the girl, but he emphasizes the contrast with the key. He also selects a

referring tone. Under this situation, the tone selection implies about the game and the

previous utterances; the orientation directs to the girl’s previous comment. The

textbook clearly defines that replies to questions always have a falling tone, though.

Another example of selective prominence is for the subject of a sentence. There

has been noticed in my experience with beginner-level learners that quite a few tend

to place stress on the subject of a sentence, such as ‘I’, ‘He’, or ‘She’ without any

purpose or reason. This may be by reason of their high concern of the correct

pronunciation of every word rather than the meaning of intonation. In real interaction,

however, the subject is not usually given prominence. It is because the subject is fairly

predictable and needless to be highlighted in comparison with other words, as you see

in (2). On the contrary, as apparent in (1), the subject is purposefully highlighted for

the listener. The prominence projects the speaker’s decision on which word, or precisely

which accented syllable should be made significant for the listener. Further, selecting

a referring tone will not only tell the listener which object is denoted by the subject

‘that’ but also confirm the listener in sharing the feeling of having had ‘fun’.

The DI theory can explain the selection of a proclaiming tone for the interrogative

sentences in (2) and (3) that the speaker is asking for information that the listener

knows but the speaker does not have. If a referring tone was selected as ‘➘➚ how

OFten do you PLAY?’, the same utterance should be taken as having a checking

function. The textbook gives a notion that the interrogative-question form always has

a fixed intonation of a falling tone; however, it is not the form that decides the tone

selection, but the speaker’ choice in communicative contexts.

The traditional approach focuses on distinguishing the form. The objective is

obtaining the knowledge of the rules by mechanically describing and producing each

element correctly. In class, however, the objective in class should be learning form for

meaning, as a clause without meaning is no more than a formation of linguistic

symbols. The notion of stress does not coincide with that of prominence in the

discourse approach. Stress itself is a physically emphasized sound and is not provided

with meaning or interpretation; on the other hand, prominence in a clause provides a

distinctive quality compared to other sounds and shows the speaker’s subjective

viewpoint, which will be conveyed to the listener. Stress-timed rhythm theory has

nothing to do with discourse. A clause is no more than a formation of sounds with

fixed, regular beats. Meaningful distinction in comparison with other sounds is not

allowed under the theory. Since form and function work in harmony and form should

be selected meaningfully, the learning focus should be also given to the observation of

context that helps create imagination. The discourse approach is supposedly more

appropriate than the traditional approach in that perspective.

Most beginner-level students are busy with acquiring basic linguistic features.

Their first concern is form rather than meaning; producing a sentence with correct

grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. They are more dependent on the written

text than listening to a story. When they refer to a textbook while listening, they

appear to be trying to match every word they hear to the word in the textbook. In a

listening-focus activity, many students often refer to the transcript after listening to

find out the words that they couldn’t catch. In either situation, most of their questions

are related to the correctness of pronunciation, the position of accented syllables, and

connected sound. Intonation is beneath their notice. It is therefore not surprising that

their awareness of its communicative value is very low. The evidence can also be

demonstrated on the output side when they read an article or do pair-work on a

dialogue: intonation is not distinctive, pauses are frequently inserted at meaningless

places, the subject of a sentence is usually highlighted. They apparently fail to associate

the form with its function or they lack understanding of the meaning of the complete

text and fail to fit together bits of text coherently. The effect of the traditional approach

of focus-on-form-in-isolation is apparent. However, there is a valuable comment of a

student that she wants to have the meaning clear before practicing reading. Focus-onform-

in-isolation can be effective in teaching very young beginner-level learners

because of its simplicity and their cognitive development. In case of adult learners,

however, because of the availability of their imagination and analytical abilities, raising

awareness of form should be associated with meaning.

Conclusion

It is not, of course, claimed here that the teaching with conventional rhythm pattern

is of no use whatsoever. Rather, an interpretation of intonation in a discourse-based

framework is suggested for an alternative pronunciation focus activity: “in the

beginning is not the language form in isolation, but rather meaning.” On which

syllable stress is put in comparison with others or to show difference in communicative

value should be voluntarily selected by the speaker. However, the textbooks used with

my students treat intonation as a discrete item in the language system. The students’

awareness of the communicative value of intonation is low. Although the textbooks’

treatment of intonation is not that of the discourse approach, some recorded dialogues

on the tape can be utilized to raise students’ awareness of how intonation works in

communication, regarding the context including the relationship between the speaker

and the listener. The DI theory proposed by (1994a, 1994b) considers that

systematic treatment of intonation will be useful to those who have already achieved

an advanced level of proficiency in the written language, and PALE is designed with

such students in mind. However, everyday speech interaction such as short verbal

responses usually doesn’t require advanced-level knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.

The discourse approach to intonation would encourage even beginner-level students

to see intonation from the point of view of how the speaker can convey their message

to the listener most meaningfully.

Corporate and Government Computers Hacked by Juveniles

Corporate and Government Computers

Hacked by Juveniles

Your government computer is probably being targeted for a hack

right now. There’s a good chance the hackers are teenagers. There’s

also a good chance they’ll never be caught. And they know it.

Imagine a teenager in his pajamas at the computer in his bedroom at 3 a.m., absorbed by

the challenge of hacking into the Pentagon. And then, finally, he comes across a list of

thousands of emails from top military brass with cool subjects about different

“operations.” There, appearing on the screen before his eyes, are the names and

passwords of over a dozen US Department of Defense (DOD) employees. He could be

the proverbial fly on the wall at DOD, listening to bio-weapon experts at the Defense

Threat Reduction Agency. Yeah, he’ll get to that tomorrow night. OK. Save. And maybe

in a week or two, he’ll get to that high-security software for the International Space

Station on the National Aeronautic and Space Administration’s (NASA) network. But it’s

4 a.m. and there’s school tomorrow. Bookmark. Shut down.

Seem unlikely? It happened. Yes, this case was “way back” in 1999, when most people

hadn’t realized the transparency of computer communication. Except, well, many had. So

today in 2006, why are there evenmore of these cases? Thousands of computer

intrusions? Millions of identity thefts? And $67.2 billion lost to cyber-crime last year?

The lesson begins two decades ago.

First Hacker Caught - The Germans Learned Their Lesson. But Did We?

The year was 1986. One lone American astronomer, who fiddled with computers during

his research, discovered a financial discrepancy of seventy-five cents. From that, he

followed a trail of computer hacks over several years, eventually convincing the FBI,

military, international security and law enforcement agencies to pursue a computer

criminal for the first time in history. In Germany, a college student had gained access to

hundreds of computers on Milnet and Arpanet, the US military versions of today’s

Internet. The hacker downloaded data from our Army bases in Germany, Japan, Alabama,

and Georgia, from Air Force bases in Germany and California, from Navy systems in

Florida, from the Pentagon, from the Jet Propulsion Lab, from an MIT computer, from

the Lawrence Berkeley Lab, and from other defense contractors.

Who else had seen the thousands of secret files that a German college student (dubbed the

“Hannover Hacker”) had been stealing for years? How does one measure the

consequences of unveiled defense strategies, proprietary software, and military identities?

Perhaps the more recent, though individual, case of Valerie Plame’s lost cover can

illustrate this point for us today. We won’t know how bad things are until something

happens based on the lost intelligence. That could be tomorrow or in two months.

Hackers are patient, and sometimes wait years before acting on stolen information.

So since 1986, Germans have become the best enforcers of IT security in Europe. Here in

the US, however, we are still struggling with postponed legislation (HR 5835), unclear

and unevenly enforced laws, and, worst, the battle to convince ourselves that the problem

of computer intrusions is in fact a very big deal – not just to industry giants, but to every

government agency, school, and home.

The Current State of Cyber-Crime

Twenty years after the Hanover Hacker, we not only still have these types of hacking

crimes, but a plethora of even more creative ones, despite the genuine (and expensive)

industry and government attempts to secure computer networks. Cyber-crime is, of

course, global. Although attacks come from all over the world, twenty-six percent start in

the US, followed by China with twenty-four. Many such crimes are committed by

students – not because they really want state secrets, but just to prove they can do it.

Many more do it for the millions of dollars they can generate through extortion. First they

demonstrate they have access, and then threaten to shut down a company’s website for a

day. So the company pays them not to make a denial of service (DoS) hack, and the

cyber-criminals get paid time and again.

The most common type of computer crime is “merely” a virus (eighty-four percent of

respondents in a 2005 FBI survey said they had experienced at least one), which has high

nuisance and economic consequences. But more menacing, and almost as pervasive, are

spying incidents (eighty percent also dealt with this). In fact, spyware’s legitimate

function to help track your child’s computer use, for example, makes it freely available on

the Internet.

Other problems in cyber-crime include such recently-publicized problems as cyberstalking,

cyber-pornography, child predators, illegal downloading of songs and movies,

and software piracy. In addition, a 1999 Rand publication stated that Al Qaeda “appears

to have widely adapted information technology,” and was building a terrorist

“communications network that relies on the Web, e-mail, and electronic bulletin boards.”

Cyber-terrorism was born.

Other examples of cyber-crimes include the following:

In 2000, a disgruntled worker in Australia hacked into a waste management control

system and released millions of gallons of raw sewage into town.

In 2001, two post-graduate students cracked into a bank system used by the US

Treasury Department for Internet transactions, and then generously told the world how

they did it.

In 2003, an 18-year-old who considered himself a gray hat hacker (see sidebar) was

arrested for spreading a variant of the “Blaster” Virus, which had infected or shut down

millions of computers worldwide. A year later, the Blaster’s original creator was also

caught. (Update: spam and junk mail now account for seventy percent of office email,

and one in thirty-six such emails contains a virus.

In 2005, Chinese hackers penetrated US government networks and stole military

secrets, including future command and control documents.

In 2005, the ID theft of 33,000 Air Force officers from a computer at Randolph Air

Force Base resulted in the loss of their Social Security numbers, birthdates, and other

confidential data. In 2006, the personal information of 26.5 million US veterans and 2.2

million active service members was lost when a laptop with the data was stolen.

Also in 2006, hundreds of thousands of US and European bankcard numbers and PINS

were stolen. Bank accounts were looted, and people lost their life savings. Think Enron

losses, and multiply by one hundred.

The Basics of Cyber-Defense – Slow the Flood, Verify Security Measures

So what’s a company or agency to do? Money helps, of course, but despite billions of

dollars spent annually on security, there is still an increase in the frequency of computer

crimes, many of which may sound like a foreign language to you: There are, as briefly

mentioned above, DoS attacks, viruses, malicious code, spying and key-logging. In

addition, we now have worms, trojan horses, botnets and zombies, packet-sniffers, wardriving,

pharming, spear phishing, and controlling real-life vital services and utilities

such as sewage plants and power grids to entire cities. Yes, hackers can actually disrupt

and endanger our personal and professional lives in concrete ways. Phone service can be

interrupted; traffic signals can be changed; harassing and threatening emails can be sent

in your name.

Let’s say, though, that your budget doesn’t include billions of dollars for IT (and even if it

did, would it want to be constantly on the defensive against computer attacks?). In that

case, different solutions are needed, because hackers are persistent. They will “knock at

the back door” of your network not just for hours, but for months, or years. Maybe the old

software used to keep them out. Double check, though; they may now be in.

So it almost goes without saying that you must install and activate all security hardware

and software – and do so correctly. Let’s assume you have firewalls and other security on

your system. You probably still experience dozens, maybe hundreds of computer

intrusions daily, especially spam with viruses or worms. And what about the bots or

malcode that were left behind? Your spam-blocker may have slowed the flood of emails,

but it didn’t clean out the system. Anti-virus software was installed to run continuously

on all employee computers, of course, but it’s worth verifying that no one has disabled

any of the security measures, which commonly interfere with many programs, and so are

frequently “temporarily” disabled. Often, in good faith, the employee intends to re-enable

it, but forgets. Other times, it is a conscious choice by dedicated employees to keep it off,

because it slows down their productivity. In either case, the damage is done.

Let’s also assume, though, that as a dedicated manager, you’ve sent out positive memos

reminding people to follow security procedures. Maybe that’s all you’ve been allowed to

do. It’s been difficult to enforce cyber-security procedures in the office or with

subcontractors, even harder to find leaks, unclear as to how to punish for noncompliance,

and vague as to how to deal with actual loss (financial, identity, property). Compliance is

still mostly voluntary, with no single government standard uniting them. Until now.

Pending Legislation May Help Enforce Cyber Security Compliance

HR 5835, the Veterans Identity and Credit Security Act of 2006, (proposed following the

veterans’ ID thefts), has been approved by the House Veterans Affairs Committee as of

this writing, and could be signed into law this coming session. The bill, if enacted, would

give chief information and security officers the power to enforce cyber-security policies

“to the extent determined necessary and explicitly by the head of the agency.”

This bill is significant because prior legislation (the 2002 Federal Information Security

Management Act, FISMA) was criticized for not having given that power to CIOs,

leaving them only able to make cyber-security recommendations. HR 5835 would

establish federal standards to notify and provide credit protection services for cyber

victims, and enforce instant warnings to Congress or other federal offices impacted by

security violations. A controversy now exists as to whether agency undersecretaries or

their IT departments should ultimately have IT security enforcement power.

At this point, maybe you’re saying that the few intrusions into your network have been

fairly innocuous – a few redirected web links to a porn site, or some fake e-mails. But

they can escalate in the punch of a key. If someone has the access to send fake emails,

they may also be able to read all of yours, and everything else on your hard drive.

Hackers have created an international community that openly shares malicious code,

cracker programs, how-to-hack articles, books, workshops, and sites on the Internet and at

national conventions. Frequent postings on hacker blogs publicize specific weaknesses in

commonly-used applications. Code-specific hacking instructions are accompanied by a

disclaimer, “for educational purposes only,” but names have been named and weaknesses

revealed, making entire networks – government and private –vulnerable to attack.

So even though there is hope that agencies will be able to protect the cyber-infrastructure

with new laws or hardware, it may still seem that you have very little control over your

own department’s computer security. And if you think about the sheer number of human

sources as potential data leaks, your control seems even more limited. Cause to worry.

Now, added cause to worry: international cyber-criminals are increasingly linked to

organized crime. And as cyber-security software and hardware improve, IBM notes “it is

anticipated that many of these criminals may target the most vulnerable access point

within a company or organization – its personnel – to execute an attack.”

In fact, however, and despite the outcome of pending legislation, you actually have as

much power with a few well-executed leadership decisions as with your arsenal of cyberdefense

measures. There’s no physical warehouse to storm, no getaway car to outrun, and

no clear-cut bad guy to catch. You have to outwit this enemy, and on his turf. That means

education. You have to teach everyone else how to outwit him, too. It all comes back to

learning a lesson. Call it training. Call it professional development. Call it continuing ed.

Just make sure that the receptionist learns it as does the boss.

Increase Cyber-Security through Education

One agency that has taken an aggressive stance in educating its personnel is DOD, which

has developed computer security simulations. They regularly put computer trainees

through network attack exercises to learn to thwart actual intrusions.

In fact, the Annual Cyber Defense Exercise (CDX) is the ultimate National Security

Agency (NSA) cyber challenge, with the military to educate future officers in the art and

science of computer network security. In a simulated military operation, teams of cadets

and midshipmen defend a closed computer network they designed, built and configured.

Such cyber education is officially acknowledged as essential to this country.

So shouldn’t all agencies, businesses and schools be just as dedicated and allocate just as

many resources to educating their own communities in the secure, legal, safe, and ethical

online practices? The Socrates Institute, a non-profit educational organization founded by

this author, certainly thinks so. We began building a cyber-ethics curriculum for schools

in 2003, but the problems of cyber-crime had not yet sufficiently caught the public’s eye.

And since no state department of education required any type of cyber-safety, cybersecurity,

or cyber-ethics instruction in schools, the federal government did not yet see the

need for it either. That’s all changing now.

The US Department of Justice (DOJ) Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section

Web site states that “Some individuals exploit the power of the Internet for criminal or

terrorist purposes. We can minimize the harm that such individuals do by learning

ourselves, and teaching young people how to use the Internet safely and responsibly.”

The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) requires online courses for

employees, managers, and technical personnel to “minimize disclosing sensitive

information,” and to “teach caution using the web/Internet media.”

At the state level, Virginia enacted a new Internet Safety Law on March 7, 2006. Merely

distributing acceptable use policies has not been effective. The law now has a provision

to “include a component on Internet safety for students that is integrated in a division's

instructional program.” In the business sector, Symantec puts its employees through an

ethics training program not just once, but yearly and supports Virginia’s initiative in

protecting children online through classroom instruction. They also add that, “As part of

a safety program, the Virginia Department of Education should be looking holistically at

Internet safety to incorporate cyber security and cyber ethics as well.”

Three Aspects of Cyber-Crime Education

These three aspects of cyber-crime education (cyber-safety, cyber-security, and cyberethics)

form the foundation of the annual C3 Conference at the University of Maryland.

The organizer, Dr. , speaks to its educational focus: “We can use

many materials out there in schools, but cyber-ethics, cyber-safety, and cyber-security

education won’t make an impact until it’s fully integrated throughout an entire state

curriculum. It can’t just be an add-on or a school assembly. It needs to become ingrained

into everyone’s daily routine.”

Emphatically, The Cyber Security Industry Alliance states that, “What is missing here is a

focused and organized national effort to teach children cyber security, cyber ethics, and

cyber safety with national security in mind.” In addition, “it is incomprehensible that we

are not teaching cyber security, ethics, and safety at an early age. Poor awareness by

children about cyber security may ...ultimately threaten the fabric of our nation’s critical

cyber infrastructure.”

Not surprisingly, one other community also agrees on the importance of cyber crime

education. Computer hackers themselves seized the Internet long ago to build a

following, create gangs, and challenge each other. As a result, we are dealing today with

the somewhat chaotic cyber-culture they built. But as with any culture, this one must

evolve in order to survive.

International cooperation in criminal cyber-activity is already underway (the Senate has

finally ratified the Council of Europe's 2001 Convention on Cybercrime, making us the

sixteenth of forty-three countries to sign). While the treaty sends the signal that we are

building a united front to pursue cyber-criminals, it is up to leaders in the cyber-culture to

re-establish a united set of values (admittedly an extremely difficult task), and create a

common link between what are now tragically disparate nations, at several levels.

Changing Cyber-Culture through Education

Anyone in your office with access to an electronic communication device (from a cell

phone to a fax or podcast) risks opening your network to hackers. It doesn’t have to be a

high-tech piece of equipment either. Information leaks have been happening without

laptops for centuries through “Social Engineering.” But there are ways to minimize these

risks.

So how do employees deal with the cyber-culture in which they work eight hours a day?

They make up the rules as they go along. Yes, really. As a result, the cyber-world has as

much the freedom, excitement, and danger as the wild-west. But as the Internet reaches a

critical mass of users who demand safe, ethical, and secure interactions, it also moves

closer to creating a more civilized society.

To facilitate that move, people need to learn why they must implement certain security

protocols, why following one procedure cannot replace all the others, why certain online

activities interfere with security, why verifications, back-ups, passwords and firewalls are

all needed, etc. Mostly, though, they need to know why each and every person should

bother with all that even if they are “just” a receptionist or “even though” they’re the

boss.

It’s not enough, of course, to tell people why they should change. To increase the chance

of policy being correctly implemented, people need both an understanding of why as well

as hands-on training in how to change. In computer security, this means letting each

employee go through the keystrokes themselves (ideally in a safe, simulated environment)

to best understand the importance, relevance, and logic of procedures.

In such simulated environments, we know that learners improve decision-making, make

faster choices, apply learned behaviors, and move more easily from novice level to

expert. The good news is that simulations can help people learn to avoid Internet credit

scams or worms, and to make wise decisions using their own “talents” online. They can

learn how to securely instant-message (IM), blog, and use their cell phone without

revealing critical information. And throughout the simulation, they will learn the

consequences of making wrong decisions.

The bad news is that providing such educational training takes a great deal more time

than adding security software, but both strategies are essential to cyber-security.

NetEdGE Cyber-Education

Leaders in both the public and private sectors advocate direct instruction for employees

and students in the proper use of cyber-technology. In the spirit of fulfilling this need, The

Socrates Institute has been developing NetEdGE (Internet Educational Game of Ethics)

with seed money from Symantec. Our purpose is to create a training program that guides

young people through different scenarios of cyber-crimes from three perspectives: elite

hacker, innocent cyber-victim, and undercover FBI agent. In each role, the individual

learns how to interact in a simulated cyber-culture through decision-making, risk-taking,

and especially by making mistakes inside the protected environment. We even give

players the chance to hack into a fictitious organization, and then have to deal with the

legal, economic, and social consequences.

Reaching the current workforce is undeniably important. But we must also reach young

people at the start of their career. Nationwide, there are over18.8 million teens on the

Internet for an average of ninety minutes a day. Over half (fifty-one percent) of their

parents do not have or do not know of software on their computers to monitor where the

teens go or with whom they interact online.

But we do know that organized crime has been recruiting teens in great numbers, turning

their computer skills into big business. In fact, teens are even recruiting other teens in

increasingly organized ways to commit DoS, fraud, and extortion.

We also know that only about five percent of all cyber-criminals are ever caught, and few

are punished. In fact, ninety percent of computer intrusions are never even reported;

companies prefer not drawing attention to themselves, less they risk losing consumer

confidence. So our best chance, and one thing you can do as a leader, to reduce the

numbers of cyber-criminals, is to educate the incoming workforce, giving them simulated

opportunities to make both right and wrong choice in the cyber-world, and show the reallife

consequences of both.

There doesn’t need to be an army of computer hackers to cause damage to an agency

infrastructure. All it takes is one young person in a single reckless cyber-crime, and no

idea of the social, legal, economic, and emotional damage it can cause. All it takes is one

teenager who figures that no one will ever find him. And at three o’clock in the morning,

with the world at his fingertips, he’s running password-guessing programs. And he’s not

even sleepy.

PostScript

We exist in an unpredictable era of technological evolution that seems to outpace our

laws, cultural mores, and sense of personal safety. But we try and keep up with the new

cyber-world. So we create new laws. We sit at the same table with security experts and

hackers. We invent new strategies to observe it, new tools to probe it, new portals to

access it, and new words to define it. Now it’s time we developed new ways to teach

others (and ourselves) how to successfully, honorably, and safely live in the cyber-world

as we do in the real world. The purpose of this article has been neither to recommend nor

criticize any particular brand or trademark of computer security; use the system best for

your organization, depending on its size, security clearances, or budget. And educate your

whole team in how and why to use it – all the time.

EDUCATION

Education is vital to every individual for it is a way to improve our status in life. It also enhances the capabilities of every individual for them to cope up with the difficulties happen in the society. This argument essay tackles on which is a TRUE EDUCATION, if it is the general or the vocational education. General education is the attainment of the overall system of learning; from the foundation of basic knowledge to the specialized degree of education. As a result, it opens an extensive viewpoint for the students to enhance their abilities as they search for the real answers. Moreover, through this, the struggle for human achievement and fulfillment is effective. On the other hand, vocational education is also in demand as the labor market requires more specialized and skillful individuals other than degree holders. However, as the definition tells us, it is only applicable to a specific field of knowledge. Nevertheless, this argument still depends on the standpoint of people. What matters most is how much knowledge is planted on them that he/she can apply to cope up with difficulties of the world in the work place.

 

 

 

.

 

Metaphorical Systems and their Implications to Teaching English as a Foreign Language

p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph; line-height: 200%">  

                            

 

 

 

Metaphorical Systems and their Implications to Teaching English as a Foreign Language

 

 

 

Abstract

 

 

 

This paper is about an investigation into metaphorical systems as an approach to teach polysemous words to foreign language learners. Metaphorical usage is prevalent in authentic texts and the foreign language learner when dealing with them is faced with words that carry several meanings. In order to see the prevalence as such and also to see the nature of polysemy in comparison with the first language, two newspaper articles at random were chosen. The articles are both on the same topic, elections, and one is in English and the other in Japanese. The metaphorical systems found in the articles were found to be prevalent in both languages except for a few marked ones. However, the extent of polysemy seemed to differ. The method of translating each article into the other language made comparison of the usage of the polysemous words useful. It is argued that such an effective way of discovering polysemy may facilitate vocabulary learning. In conclusion, this study favors the introduction of an approach that uses metaphorical systems to develop the foreign language learner’s English vocabulary.

 

 

Introduction

In their joint commitment to finding out ‘how people understand their language and their experience’,  (1980) studied the patterns of metaphors that occurred in everyday English. They found a systematicity in the usage of conventional expressions and novel language constructions as well as a systematicity in the reasoning of abstract concepts. Their findings led them to the generalization that ‘our ordinary conceptual system is metaphorical in nature’ (1980) and that it is in constant use just like the ‘system of grammatical and phonological rules’ that operate unconsciously and automatically (1993), and thus challenging the traditional view that figurative language is ‘unimportant, deviant, and parasitic on “normal usage” ’ (1993:).

For the English teacher, such as myself, this has some important implications. I have often wondered of ways to promote the understanding of metaphorical concepts ‘in the way that the target language community does’ (1998). In the ‘authentic material’ I use, such as humorous language, song lyrics, movie scripts, newspaper and magazine articles, myths, tales and fables, the students have to deal with numerous metaphorical concepts which are sometimes quite different from their own Japanese ones. Usually, I would resort to paraphrasing, translations and dictionary definitions. But now with mounting evidence and empirical findings (1987; 1986;  1990) related to the systematicity and pervasiveness of conventional metaphors, I am motivated to think of a more macroscopic way of dealing with the problem.

In this paper, I will attempt at identifying and comparing the ‘metaphorical systems’ (i.e.: the systematicity of metaphors) used in two newspaper articles, one in English and the other in Japanese. This is relevant to my teaching situation at Kyoto Municipal Saikyo Senior High School in Japan where I am preparing my students to read and comprehend university entrance examination reading texts which are usually‘adult level, well-written, grammatically and stylistically correct’ (1995).

After an analysis of the metaphorical systems, it will be argued that the systematic nature of metaphorical systems can be of use to the foreign language learner. But, first I will clarify my understanding of the term metaphorical systems, and attempt at showing how pervasive they are supposed to be in everyday language. It is argued that by showing the pervasiveness of metaphors and their systems, the necessity of bringing them to the attention of learners becomes clearer.

 

1.      Metaphorical Systems

            Metaphors

  In their study of metaphors,  (1980) have found that far from being poetic and figures of speech, they were pervasive in conventional language and thought. Expressions like, Your claims are indefensible; He attacked every weak point in my argument; His criticisms were right on target; revealed the underlying metaphorical concept of: ‘Argument is War’. In this way, they were able to identify many metaphorical concepts underlying our language about time, events, motion, spaces and emotions, to name a few.

  One salient feature of these concepts is the systematic way the words from the source domain (war) are used in everyday language to describe the abstract war-like aspects in the target domain (argument). Another, is that when using the Argument is War system, other aspects of the target domain (e.g., cooperative aspects) become ‘hidden’ ().

  Metaphorical language allows us to express our abstract and difficult concepts in concrete terms. Therefore, I can talk about love in terms of falling in some bounded region; and not just be content with the literal meaning of love to convey that extraordinary feeling. These are some of the features that make up the essential nature of a metaphorical utterance.

  For the native speaker who is unaware of the metaphorical systems operating in the mind readily understands and uses expressions such as: ‘Look how far we have come’, ‘It’s been a long, bumpy road’, ‘We can’t turn back now’ and ‘We’re at a crossroads’ (1993). Lakoff and Johnson say that this is possible due to the ‘generalizations governing polysemy’ and ‘generalizations governing inference patterns’ found in language.

  This brings up the question, How can the foreign language learner acquire such unconscious behaviour?

  Hypothetically speaking, the acquisition process may be facilitated when the metaphorical systems are used to bring to the attention of the learner the ‘generalizations governing polysemy’ that are described ‘in terms of conceptual organization’ (1987) or for practical purposes exposure to the conventional usage of metaphorical expressions.

  As far back as 1973,  hypothesized that many of our everyday metaphors relate to human perceptual systems and experiences with the real world and thus would occur across languages (1995). However,  (1980) have shown that everyday metaphors in a language are culturally as well as perceptually based.

 

            Primary Metaphors

  Just by functioning normally in the world, we automatically and unconsciously acquire and use a vast number of such metaphors. Those metaphors are realized in our brains physically and are mostly beyond our control. They are a consequence of the nature of our brains, our bodies, and the world we inhabit. (1999)

   () point out that the reason we conceptualize for example: understanding an idea as grasping an object, lies in the primary metaphors we have built up since early childhood (). These metaphors are said to have developed after a period of conflation of our subjective and sensorimotor experiences. These experiences gradually give way to ‘a period of differentiation’ creating separate domains, while the cross-domain associations continue to persist (). This cognitive mechanism of cross-domain associations is what allows us to view a subjective experience of understanding an idea in terms of the sensorimotor experience of grasping. Similarly, there are supposed to be several hundred of such primary metaphors () prevalent in a culture. Some of them possibly exist, it is predicted, universal across cultures.

 

            Basic Event-Structure Metaphor

  The basic event-structure metaphor reveals ‘our most fundamental understanding of what events and causes are’ (1999). In addition,  (1993) had previously emphasized that ‘various aspects of event structure, including notions like states, changes, processes, actions, causes, purposes, and means, are characterized cognitively via metaphors in terms of space, motion, and force’.

  The basic event-structure metaphors are fundamental categories through which we comprehend the world and such basic event-structure metaphors ‘are fundamental not only to our literal conceptualization of the world but to our metaphorical conceptualization as well’ (1999). Support for this comes from the studies of  (1974),  (1977),  (1981) and  (1984) who have shown that ‘our earliest and most natural form of categorization’ (1987) are the basic-level categories.

  Of the many salient features of the basic event-structure metaphor (1999), the hierarchical nature found in the interaction between metaphorical systems seems to stand out as being relevant to the foreign language learner. For example, the Life is a Journey metaphor entails the interaction of other events in life such as, love, career and so on. In other words, The Love is a Journey and Career is a Journey metaphors inherit the structure of Life is a Journey metaphor ( 1993: ). This inheritance factor allows for expressing love and career domains in terms of the journey domain. This expression of metaphors in general categories is what connects them or in Lakoff and Johnson’s words gives them ‘coherence’ (19805).

 

2.4  Shortcomings

  Though (1980; 1999) and  (1994) have emphasized that metaphorical systems motivate large areas of our language use, (1998) cites two crucial problems. One, that the perceptual experience ends up being, once again, “disembodied”,’ in their ‘well-structured and predictable mappings’ bearing similarities to the ‘abstract-based format of traditional semantic accounts’. Two, that findings in the field of meaning representation studies( 1997; 1997) show the inadequacy of the ‘inferential-literal’ language in describing many visual, haptic, kinesthetic and other perceptions (). In addition,  (1999), finds the present theory of metaphorical systems to be inadequate in explaining the partial and overlapping aspects of metaphor.

  Furthermore,  (1991) points out, that we need more justification before we rush to generalize for example, She lost me then as evidence that she is behaving according to the underlying metaphorical concept of Learning is a Journey.  (1999) agrees and  () suggests the need for more ethnographic evidence.

 

2.      Metaphorical Systems in the Newspaper Articles

In the next part of this paper, an attempt will be made at identifying the metaphorical systems found in similar newspaper articles of an English newspaper and a Japanese one. The systems will be compared and their similarities and differences will be highlighted. Finally, in this way, some important implications for the foreign language learner will be formulated.

 

 

            Materials and Method

  For this study, an article about the elections in Iran from the February 21, 2000 issue of the Herald Tribune (see Appendix A) and a similar article on the same date from the issue of the Asahi Shimbun (see Appendix B), randomly selected, will be the subject of this investigation.

  First, the metaphorical systems in the English newspaper article have been listed by categorizing the conventional metaphors (Table 1, Appendix C). Next, the same can be seen for the Japanese newspaper article in Table 2, Appendix D. Later, for the purpose of locating the similarities and differences in the metaphorical systems of the respective articles, the conventional metaphors were translated into the language of comparison (Table 1, and Table 2). However, only those metaphorical systems occurring more than once in the articles have been considered as the main metaphorical systems. The other metaphorical systems in the articles that were determined from single occurrences of conventional metaphors are not dealt with in this paper, but only those found to be different or marked when translated are cited and dealt with in section 3.6 of this paper (also Table 3, Appendix E).

For this study, ‘The New Japanese-English Dictionary’ ( 1974) was the basis for all the Japanese to English translations, and  (Japanese English teacher at Rakusei Junior and Senior High Schools) expertise for the Japanese translations.

 

            Limitations

The method of identifying the metaphorical systems is limited by the ability to recognize the source and target domains. There is going to be a ‘measure of subjectivity’ and ‘randomness’ in such a ‘unilateral approach’ (1999). In addition, ‘peripherally relatable’ () cases of metaphors might be emphasized due to reading the articles many times over. Finally, with an approach that is dependent on translation for seeking out the differences and similarities there is the danger of being satisfied when the ‘truth conditions’ (1987) have been fulfilled, thereby missing ‘how concepts are organized’.

 

 

 

 

 

            The Main English Metaphorical Systems in the English Newspaper Article and their prevalence in Japanese

  The following metaphorical systems were found to operate in more than one instance of conventional metaphorical expressions in the English newspaper article:

l  Election is a Race

l  Election is War

l  Elections are Locations

l  Election is a Movement of an Object

                                    (refer to Table 1, Appendix C for details)

  The four metaphorical systems underlying the English newspaper article is dispersed in the following way:

l  Election is a Race has thirteen sentences.

l  Election is War has nine sentences of which seven overlap with the Election is a Race system.

l  Elections are Locations has four sentences.

l  Elections is a Movement of an Object has five sentences.

 

  Now, in order to see the prevalence of the conventional metaphors found in the English newspaper article in Japanese, the expressions were translated. Conventional metaphors in Japanese were found prevalent for a majority of the cases. The exceptions were found for one sentence in the Election is a Race system, and all the five sentences in the Election is a Movement of an Object system.

  The sentence, ‘Preliminary results showed Mr. Rafsanjani coming in as far down the list as twenty-fifth’ uses the words coming in metaphorically. This when translated to Japanese is nonsensical as the ni kiteiru the Japanese translation for coming in cannot be used to describe the meaning of the English sentence. Instead, the sentence would have to be translated using the Japanese words ni ranku sareta to literally mean, was ranked so as to describe the result of the candidate.

  As for Election is a Movement of an Object, all the five sentences do not have translations using the same English equivalents for went to, put in, give, handed and moving (refer to Table 1, Appendix C) which in Japanese are ni itta, ni oku, ataeru, tewatasu and ugokasu, respectively. Instead, tori meaning has taken; nari meaning became; ni yori meaning through, ijoushita meaning transfer, and ni meaning towards, are the translations for the English words cited above. Nevertheless, these are words describing movement of an object. This indicates the similarity of the system but differences in describing the concepts. Moreover, as the words are all from the same source domain of movement of an object, it is likely that this is a case of ‘coherence’ showing the connections between the metaphors in both languages.

 

            The Main Japanese Metaphorical Systems in the Japanese Newspaper Article and their prevalence in English

  The following metaphorical systems were found to operate in more than one instance of conventional metaphorical expressions in the Japanese newspaper article:

l  Election is War

l  Election is a Race

l  Positions are Body Parts

                                    (refer to Table 2, Appendix D for details)

  The Japanese newspaper article is mainly based on two metaphorical systems and one other metaphorical system in a minor way. The occurrence of the metaphors are as follows:

l  Election is War has twenty-one sentences.

l  Election is a Race has seven sentences of which three sentences overlap with the Election is War system.

l  Positions are Body Parts has two sentences.

  Interestingly, all the Japanese conventional metaphors in the newspaper article could be translated into English without any sense of loss of the concepts that are expressed (refer to Table 2, Appendix D).

 

            A Closer Look at Both the Systems

  The two articles seem to highlight similar concepts about the elections in Iran. They highlighted the war and race aspects of the elections. However, the Japanese newspaper article stressed the war aspects more while the English newspaper article stressed the race aspect a little more than the war aspect. There were quite a few sentences indicating the location and movement of an object aspects, as well.

  As a result, the cooperative and journey aspects that elections carry were hidden in both articles. For example, the elections might have been held in a very orderly and under civil circumstances (in some areas) showing cooperation among the voters, election officials and candidates. Besides, the long-term effects elections have on a country and the direction they take the country in have been hidden or downplayed.

  Other similarities can be seen in the use of the expression landslide victory in both newspaper articles, and many instances of the use of the same polysemous words in the war and race domains. Similarities in most of the concepts can be seen in translations, where most of the metaphorical expressions were found to exist in both languages.

  However, the use of the exact same words differed in certain places. For example, the word run used to express running for elections had a corresponding word in Japanese called shutsuba (literally meaning running away or run for). On further analysis this word revealed that it is used only to describe the act of standing for election or running for election. Though the Chinese characters of 出 (shutsu, meaning emerge or put out), and 馬 (ba meaning horse) have metaphorical connotations, Lakoff and Johnson would call such usage as a ‘dead metaphor’ (1999).

  Moreover the Japanese word for run is hashiru which is not used to express the act of running in an election. In other words, the polysemous meanings of the English word run are not the same for the ones found for hashiru. One clear example can be seen in the following sentence where hashiru is not used for the translation: His arguments run counter to what we have proposed. The converse is also true. The Japanese language uses the word hashiru (run) to describe a moving car such as in the following: hashitteiru kuruma kara tobi oriru (Jump off a moving car). In the English language it would sound nonsensical to say, Jump off a running car.

  There were many such words where the extent of polysemy varied. The Japanese particles ‘ni’ and ‘o’ are polysemous, too. ‘ni’ can mean in, at, on and into. While ‘o’ can mean at, of, on, in and with. This could be a very troublesome area to learn for a foreign language speaker, and in addition this seems to cause a lot of confusion to my students when dealing with English prepositions.

  In the Japanese expressions under Positions are Body Parts, English equivalents were available, but on closer examination, there is a small difference in the Chinese character for head used to describe a leader or a head of an organization. The character used is 首 (neck) and not 頭 (head).

  There were also two Japanese sentences with words that would sound odd when translated into English.  The metaphorical systems followed were, Blood Relations are Real and Omission is a Leakage which are quite marked for the English language (refer to Table 3, Appendix E). The word jittei (real younger brother) is used to distinguish blood relations from other relations. It is common in the Japanese language to combine the Chinese character for real (実) with family relations such as, real-father (実父), real-mother (実母), and real-older-brother (実兄).

  In the case of the metaphorical system Omission is a Leakage, a single occurrence of a Japanese sentence that describes a person being omitted from the list as a leakage (moreta), quite awkward in English. However, this word moreta (past tense of moreru) is also used for describing a leaked secret, very similar to the English usage in this sense.

  Finally, phrases such as social labels, labeled as an American and labeled as a slang in my dictionary are marked expressions in Japanese. The conventional usage of the word for label (retteru) is different in Japanese, though it is used to translate the just mentioned phrases. The English metaphorical system of Categories are Labels seems to sound odd in the Japanese language.

  All in all, most of the metaphorical systems found in both the newspaper articles could be translated back and forth into the two languages with little loss of the meaning they carry. It may be safe to say that the metaphorical systems used for describing elections are very similar in the two languages. This could be due to the universality of the concepts governing elections across many languages. However, the extent of the polysemous usage of the words appearing in the metaphors seems to vary.

 

3.      Implications for Foreign Language Learners

It is believed that as foreign language learners already possess ‘ world knowledge’ and ‘discourse knowledge’ which can be used to help where there is a lack of ‘linguistic knowledge’ (1991), an awareness of universal and differing metaphorical concepts may also be helpful.

Translating tasks are very common in Japanese English classrooms and this practice is highly favoured by most of the Japanese secondary school English teachers (1988;1999). However, using this task for ‘hypothesis testing’ (1987) is rare as mostly the practice is to do with building vocabulary and grammar knowledge (ibid). It is possible that by using translation as a tool to seek the metaphorical systems that underlie the target text the Japanese English teachers may find a way of providing for a more stimulating discussion of the phrases and words being used.

By contrasting and comparing the metaphorical systems used in authentic texts by first setting up a task of translation may offer the foreign language learner the opportunity to obtain ‘data crucial for the testing of hypothesis’ (1987). The data will speak of the similarities and differences in the metaphorical expressions and polysemous usage of words. For example, the information gleaned from the comparisons made between the English and Japanese newspaper articles on the elections in Iran could be extended to a writing exercise to describe elections in Japan. Furthermore, such topics as politics or debating could be described using the same source domain of War (same as for elections). In this way, the foreign language learner could form generalizations and strategies through trial and error for expressing abstract concepts, and in addition develop a strong familiarity with the polysemous meanings of the words.

However, the introduction of metaphorical systems as an approach for understanding the target language may first require some understanding of the ‘approach’ itself. Metaphorical idioms may be a good source. One book, The Big Picture (1999) in particular stands out for listing such idioms under metaphorical systems.  () suggests that it becomes easier to remember such idioms when the meanings they entail are understood. Interestingly, the many metaphorical idioms are described in pictures, too. Again, a compare and contrast task by translation of the metaphorical idioms could be one way to introduce the ‘approach’.

Familiarity to the foreign language may be facilitated, if not accelerated, by developing a familiarity to the metaphorical concepts that underlie the target language. Teachers of English as a foreign language need to provide tools and strategies to their learners to help them effectively build semantic memories of the words and phrases in the target language. The effectiveness can only be judged to the extent such knowledge of words and phrases are retained in long-term memory. The argument here is that metaphorical systems provide patterns in the linguistic data which may help build solid semantic mappings of words and phrases in the learner’s brain as opposed to rote learning and learning from lists.

However, it is acknowledged that for a pattern to be discerned the brain requires quantum amounts of experience (2002), which again are necessary for applying the pattern (ibid). In learning a foreign language as opposed to a second language, exposure is mainly limited to the classroom thereby making ‘quantum amounts of experience’ a far cry. Then what should be given priority is to provide efficient modes of exposure to the foreign language learner.

It may be interesting to note, that for example, a study in 1987 concluded that students (not foreign language students, however) were generally retaining, 10% of what they had read, 26% of what they had heard, 30% of what they had seen, 50% of what they had seen and heard, 70% of what they had said, and 90% of what they had said as they were doing something (1987). It could be possible then, that the task of translating into the first language with the purpose of discovering the behaviour of polysemous words through contrast and comparison with the target language may actually help the learners retain more knowledge of the vocabulary and its semantics.

 

 

4.      Conclusion

This paper has been an attempt to find the implications of metaphorical systems in teaching English as a foreign language. For this purpose, random and dated newspaper articles which appeared in both English and Japanese dailies, that happen to be about elections in Iran, were selected and their respective metaphorical systems were compared and contrasted. The findings point to the many similarities in concepts regarding the description of elections. This study attempted to formulate some implications metaphorical systems have for the foreign language learner. Though this research has not been exhaustive, an attempt has been made to find a use for the pervasive nature of metaphorical systems.

Metaphorical language is often a part-and-parcel of authentic material. In dealing with such material the foreign language learner is faced with the polysemous use of words. To be able to adequately grasp and use these words the learner requires a methodology that follows a systematic and reliable approach. This study into the nature of metaphorical systems and their pervasive nature in languages has shown that it may be one such approach. However, further research, especially empirically based evidence, is required to justify the use of metaphorical systems as a tool for teaching some areas of English as a foreign language.

The Effectiveness of Professional Development in Mathematics

The Effectiveness of Professional Development in Mathematics

 

Introduction

            With the fast development of the world today, mathematics becomes important not only to the students who are studying it, but also to many individuals involved in science and technology. It has been reported that the importance of mathematics is two-fold, being essential in the advancement of science, on our understanding of the workings of the universe, and in the here and now it is important to individuals for personal development, both mentally and in the workplace (2004). Being good in mathematics not only boosts confidence, but also enable many individuals to appreciate the subject by studying it and learning it. The importance of mathematics transcends its difficulty and highlights its significance by its many applications in scientific, logical, and technological developments in the society today.

            In most middle-income and low-income countries, education is not anymore a right, but is already considered a privilege. In contrast to the development of science and technology in many developed countries, is the decrease in the quality of education in other countries in line with the decline of the quality of life. In these low-income countries, skills in mathematics among other subjects become poor, as being affected by many different factors in the environment. Among these factors are poverty, malnutrition, wars and conflicts, and intellectual drain of many skilled professionals due to seek of better lives in developed countries. Some of these skilled workers include the teachers, who are supposedly teaching poor children in their homelands, but because of low income and a small number of benefits from the government, many opt to teach in other countries like the United States, United Kingdom and other economically-stable countries. From this situation, the knowledge and skills of many children and teachers are being sacrificed, leading to the deterioration of education in mathematics. This is the reason why different assessments must be done to improve the teaching skills of teachers in mathematics and arouse the interest of students as well.

            Due to the importance of mathematics, it is also crucial if all teachers or professors educating mathematics to various schools and universities will have better opportunities on improvement and development regarding the subject matter. Thus, the concept of Professional Development in mathematics becomes essential in this aspect. This paper discusses the concept of professional development in mathematics. It also emphasizes its effectiveness and its role in the improvement and the development of mathematics in different academic institutions.

 

Literature Review

            It has been reported that the ultimate worth of professional development for teachers is the essential role it plays in the improvement of student learning, which means that educators must pay attention to the results of professional development on job performance, organizational effectiveness, and the success of all subjects (1997). In addition, each professional development effort should be accompanied by a well-designed evaluation plan for determining its effectiveness, and because of the complexity of current changes in education, this plan should focus extensively on the use of ethnographic research (1997). It should also extend over time in order to describe and give value to the interrelationship of individual change and systematic change in education (1997).

            As schools continue to move into different phases of educational reform, one factor that is consistent is the need for professional development (1997). Professional development is defined as a continuous process of improvement to promote high standards of academic achievement and responsible citizenship for all students (2006). It increases the capacity of all members of the learning community to pursue life-long learning ( 2006). Moreover, the standards for professional development are organized into three categories, namely context, content, and process ( 2006). Context addresses the organization or culture in which the new learning will be implemented; content refers to the skills and knowledge, both pedagogical and disciplinary, that effective educators need to possess or acquire through participation in professional development activities; and process, describes the means for the acquisition of the new knowledge and skills (2006). Furthermore, professional or staff development is effective when it is embedded in the school improvement process and aligned with curricular, instructional, and assessment decisions that result in improved achievement for all students (2006). This development will ensure the improvement of many aspects of the academic institution, in its aim to pursue in providing academic excellence and critical thinking of their students and teachers as well.

            In relation to this, designing of professional development must be properly made to encourage better participation of teachers in different academic institutions. It has been reported that designing effective professional development, then, means understanding not only teacher’s learning needs, but also the students and communities they serve, and the factors that impact teachers’ lives (2006). To be most effective, professional development providers need to anticipate the barriers teachers will face, and make sure there is a plan for addressing, avoiding or getting around any obstacle in their path ( 2006).

            In line with the aim of many academic institutions for professional development of teachers and students, an effective way to gauge the performance in mathematics in different schools was through the implementation of Numeracy Projects. It has been reported that the Numeracy Project Assessment (NumPA) is an integral part of the new teaching approach, which aims to improve student achievement in mathematics, by improving classroom teaching at all levels, and aims to improve teacher confidence through addressing content knowledge and understanding of effective teaching and learning in mathematics ( 2006). These evaluations are based on recent research in New Zealand and internationally, including an extensive workshop program and facilitators who then provide considerable in-class support, and through the professional development of teachers, they can learn to use the assessment as part of their regular classroom teaching (2006). The projects include the Early Numeracy Project (ENP) for years 0 to 3; the Advanced Numeracy Project (ANP) for years 4 to 6; the Intermediate Numeracy Project (INP) for years 7 to 8; the Te Poutama Tau, a project for teachers in Maori immersion settings; and the Secondary Numeracy Project (SNP) which began in 2005 (2006). A total of $1 million annually through the year 2007 has been allocated to ensure all primary and intermediate teachers have the opportunity to participate ( 2006).

 

Methods and Results

            The research evaluation of the Early Numeracy Project (ENP) had three approaches (2002). The first approach involved collecting data from all students and facilitators and from a random sample of participating teachers and principals, while the second approach was a case-study approach involving 10 teachers and 60 of their students (2002). The third approach involved assessing the students, teachers, and principals from 22 schools randomly selected from those who had participated in the CMIT pilot project in 2000 (2002,). It has been reported that an approximately 15000 students were analyzed by subgroups according to biographic and demographic variables (2002). Results of the study suggest that student progress on The Number Framework has been impressive, as there was a strong positive growth in the five aspects of number learning assessed, irrespective of the students’ gender, age, ethnicity, or the school’s region or decile (2002). This improvement in number learning appears to be the direct result of participation in the ENP projects as the gains are greater than those expected to occur naturally over time (2002). In addition, participating teachers responded positively to the ENP, reporting increases in confidence and enthusiasm for teaching mathematics, and they also noted increased enjoyment of mathematics as a subject (2002).

            The investigation of the Advanced Numeracy Project (ANP) comprised three main components, namely the quantification of student progress using The Number Framework, questionnaires to teachers and facilitators on the effectiveness of the teacher professional development program, and an examination by case study of how effective the facilitation of the program was in terms of developing teachers’ classroom practice in number (2002). It has been reported that prior to the commencement of data gathering, ethical approval was sought from the Wellington College of Education Ethics Committee, which operates under the NZARE Code of Ethics, and to protect the privacy of the teachers and schools who took part in the evaluation, their names have been changed in the report (2002). Results of the study suggest that with the ANP, there was an increase in student achievement in number, as there was a clear growth across the six aspects of number assessed, irrespective of students’ age, gender, ethnicity, school region or decile (2002). Most student also became more sophisticated in their mathematical thinking as a result of taking part in the ANP, and was manifested in advancing to part or whole thinking by the final assessment (Higgins 2002, iii). In addition, students’ attitudes towards learning mathematics (as judged by teachers, principals, and facilitators) were improved as a result of their teachers participating in the ANP (2002). Similarly, teacher attitudes towards mathematics and the teaching of it were improved as a result of the knowledge they gained from participating in the project, such as their ability to identify barriers to student’s success (2002).

            Taking the study of the ENP and the ANP as examples of the Numeracy Project Assessment, it can be observed that the methods used by the facilitators were effective in evaluating the performance of students and teachers in mathematics. Through the Numeracy Project Assessment, the teachers were given the chance to improve on their skills in teaching mathematics and the students were given the chance to increase their knowledge and improve their skills in solving mathematical problems. In general, the method of data gathering of the studies commences by a training program, which includes several days of participating and accomplishing questionnaires to solicit feedbacks on the perceptions of the participants on the effectiveness of the project (2002). In addition, questionnaires were sent to the teachers and principals in randomly selected schools, to collect relevant demographic and biographical details about participants (2002). Moreover, all the students in the classes of the participating teachers were assessed at the completion of the teachers’ training program (2002). The participating teachers were required to submit the results of the assessments, and the results were submitted electronically using a secure website ( 2002). It has been reported that the results are entered on a national website database and record students’ progress (2006). Schools can access the national data to establish targets for planning and reporting purposes (2006). Moreover, aside from the results, the gender, date of birth and ethnicity were obtained from the students (2002). As the students were linked to schools, their performance could also be reported with respect to region and decile ( 2002).

            The methods used by the assessment is valid and appropriate, as it was able to fulfill its mission to improve student performance in mathematics through improving the professional capability of teachers (2006), as shown by the results of the assessments. In addition, it was able also to fulfill its aim that in 2005, most teachers of year 1 to 3 students, the majority of the teachers of year 4 to 6 students, and many of the teachers of year 7 and 8 students have had the opportunity to participate in the numeracy projects (2006). This is because of the dynamic and evolutionary approach of the projects to implementation and by developing understandings about mathematics learning and effective professional development (2006). Furthermore, the projects have been effective because of its flexibility in approach and maximization in sector involvement (2006).

 

Conclusion

            Nowadays, majority of the Asian countries suffer from poverty and decline in the quality of the education. In comparison to the developed countries, such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan, the quality of education has a high standard, as seen to fund and support various scientific and technological researches, which contribute to the continuous advancement and the development of the said countries. In relation to this, the skills and understanding of different subjects in different academic institutions, especially of mathematics, decreases or declines. The decline in the understanding of mathematics must not be so, as this is important with the development of science and technology in our age today. This issue has increased awareness in different parts of the world to give importance on improving education and especially focusing on improvement of mathematical expertise.

With the implementation of the Numeracy Project, it has somehow given its contribution in assessing the skills and learning of the teachers and the students regarding mathematics. It has been reported that the important contributions of the project include the improvement in learning and thinking strategies of children in early mathematics, the effective identification of teachers, and response to the learning need of the children, the characteristics of professional development programs that change teaching practice, and the effective facilitation of the project (2006).  

Given these information, I believe that these have helped me to become more aware of the situation of other people around the world, in relation to education and economic status. It has made me realize to give importance to education, as it is a very essential aspect in individual development. With the implementation of the project, it can be deduced that the problem of loss of interest and appreciation, and the decline in the knowledge and understanding of mathematics can be solved by taking part in the project. Due to the success of the project in observing and assessing the improvement of many students and teachers in their performance in mathematics, this project must be implemented in other countries around the world. If this project will be implemented in other parts of the world, such as in Asia, many Asians will also be able to appreciate mathematics, improve their understanding and skills, and in turn contribute largely to the development of their country. In this way, the whole world will be able to share views with one another, and share success and development, which would lead to the betterment of the whole world.   

 

The Effect of Effective Teaching Strategies to Classroom Behavior

The Effect of Effective Teaching Strategies to Classroom Behavior

 

Introduction

            Education plays a very important role in the learning process of every individual in the society. It is the foundation of understanding and knowledge, and serves as a basis for the success of each individual. In relation to this is the contribution of teachers in the building blocks of education. Teachers, alongside academic institutions are responsible for the effective education. With this, teachers must be equipped with a variety of effective teaching strategies or techniques to encourage many students to listen and become involved in the lessons, for effective teaching serves as the basis for effective learning, contributes to the efficient gathering of knowledge, and develops understanding. This paper aims to discuss the effective teaching strategies and their effects to classroom behavior.

 

Teaching Strategies and Its Effects

            A number of teaching strategies are present to help students take more responsibility for their own learning and enhance the process of teaching for learning. Some of these strategies include lecture, active learning, critical thinking, discussion, cooperative learning, and writing ( 2006).

Lecture – This method is effective when used with active learning and other teaching strategies. It has many advantages, particularly in large classrooms and can be effective in meeting instructional goals (2006). Its effects to classroom behavior are varied, depending on the response of students to the lecture of the instructor. For this strategy to become effective, the instructor must make sure to use stimulating visual aids, with or without the use of advanced technology. As an effect, many students would become more interested in listening to the discussion and become more participative. Another way is to make the discussion more interactive.

 

Active Learning – It has been reported that it is defined as learning environments that allow students to talk, listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities ( 2006). As an effect, the students can be more involved with their lessons, for hands on activities are helpful in the retention of lessons in the memory. With the help of small group discussions, the students can also interact with their peers, which foster a good learning environment.

 

Critical Thinking – This skillful, responsible thinking facilitates good judgment because it relies upon criteria, is self-correcting, and is sensitive to context ( 2006). When implemented, the students would develop their focusing skills, information gathering, referencing, organizing, analyzing, integrating and evaluation (2006).  

 

Discussion – It is good to create a non-threatening, interactive learning environment that allows for the free exchange of ideas ( 2006). An important factor is raising stimulating questions, such as higher cognitive ones (2001). They are defined as those which the student to mentally manipulate bits of information previously learned to create an answer or to support an answer with logically reasoned evidence (2001). Asking cognitive types of questions stimulate the thinking abilities of the students, and make the discussion livelier. The students become exposed and open to new ideas from the instructor and their peers, and even gather information regarding the topic to be discussed. This does not only motivate the students to participate in class, but also fosters a creative and innovative learning experience.

 

Cooperative Learning – This is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal, stressing the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process (2006). Working together involves differences in many aspects. From these differences, the idea of differentiated instruction applies. Differentiated instruction is an approach to teaching and learning so that students have multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas (1999). With this strategy, the students can be more receptive to ideas, despite their differences with one another, such as their diversity in culture, race, religion, age and gender.

 

Writing – This strategy includes writing across the curriculum, critical thinking, technology and computers, note taking, and personal expression (2006). Through writing, the students can express themselves, express their ideas regarding certain topics and improve their vocabulary and grammar skills. With the use of this technique, the students and the instructor can be open to one another through paper, which is helpful for the institution itself in developing their writing capabilities. This would not only enhance the students, but also give them the chance to display their talents. The effect of writing to classroom behavior is varied, however, through writing, the instructor can assess the skill of his or her students and with this assessment, the instructor can make necessary actions to contribute to their improvement.

 

Conclusion

            Effective teaching strategies are the foundation of effective learning in a classroom environment. However, one teaching strategy is not enough to achieve great learning. In addition, differences in learning must also be taken into consideration to make sure that all of the students get the equal opportunity for obtaining knowledge. (1996) emphasizes that a method appropriate for most students may be ineffective for other students who could learn more easily with a different approach. This makes methods of teaching, ways of representing information, and personality characteristics of teachers affecting learning and affect different learners differently (1996). Learning goes hand in hand with teaching, so strategies are important in the learning process.

Implementation of the Voucher Education System in Hong Kong

Implementation of the Voucher Education System in Hong Kong

 

            The importance of education transcends all the essential aspects in the society, and because it serves as the foundation of an individual’s mental capability and capacity, academic institutions are regarded to be one of the most essential elements in shaping one’s knowledge and learning. However, due to the changes that happen to our society, several changes must be accommodated to improve the quality of education that an academic institution offers, which include implementation of new programs. An example is the education voucher, which is a certificate by which parents are given the ability to pay for the education of their children at a school of their choices, rather than the public school to which they were assigned ( 2007). The implementation of the education voucher system in Hong Kong is seen to have many advantages, which include allowing the students for their free choice of academic programs and institutions, sending the students to more advanced institutions for higher education standards, and additional funding of schools for their programs (2002). In fact, the government of Hong Kong has already implemented the system to profit and non-profit kindergartens, in its aim to subsidize school fees (2007).  

            However, despite the mentioned advantages, I believe that there are more disadvantages brought about by the education voucher system. One of them is the fact that because academic institutions see this as business and competition, they will be focusing more in attracting students and not on education, thus, decreasing the quality of education. Second, allowing the children to have “too” independent decisions (2002) can mislead them and make them disregard long-term benefits, and decrease their efforts in studying. Fourth, there will be reduction of enrollees to essential subjects that do not suit their taste (2002), which sacrifices the essentiality of primary and secondary education. Due to reduction of enrollees, several schools will be closed down, thus, depriving the rights of other students studying at those institutions. With these, the government will be funding less programs for the development of important subjects including biology and agriculture (2002), decreasing the opportunity for employment and development in the field.  (2002) also emphasized the tendency for over or under supply of graduates in certain knowledge or skills. The over supply of graduates in a certain field can decrease employment opportunities, while under supply of graduates can hinder its development. Lastly, the education voucher can increase the incidence of discrimination, as academic institutions can get to choose the students to admit (2002), depriving the rights of disabled and poor children. It also leads to the discrimination and job insecurities among staffs and teachers of different institutions, which would contribute to the deterioration of the standard of education being offered. With these views, I believe that its implementation in Hong Kong must still be reviewed and evaluated several times, to take note of the myriad of negative consequences it will bring to the nation. Although this type of system is applicable to Western countries, its applicability in the Hong Kong education system is not guaranteed.

English Studies for Language Teaching

English Studies for Language Teaching

 

Question 1: What are the practical applications of pragmatics research in the fields of language acquisition and intercultural communication?

 

            Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer, and interpreted by a listener or reader, and has more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean themselves ( 1996). In simple terms, it is the study of speaker and contextual meaning (1996), or a systematic way of explaining language use in context (2001). Aside from this definition, many authors have given their share of the definition and perception of pragmatics. Crystal states that pragmatics studies the factors that govern the choice of language in social interaction and the effects of the choice of others, while Keith emphasizes that it is all about the meanings between the lexis, the grammar and the phonology, which are implied and the rules being followed are unspoken or written ones (2001). From the many definitions stated, it can be understood that pragmatics focuses on finding and interpreting meanings, based upon the words uttered by a speaker towards its listener. This concept is practically very important to the use of languages, as meaning is dependent on the choice of words spoken in a certain language in the process of language acquisition, which determines the effectiveness of intercultural communication.

             Pragmatics includes four major areas that must be given importance to be able to understand its entire idea. The four major areas include speech acts, conversational implicature, cooperative principles, and politeness. The Speech Act Theory states that a speech event represents three acts, namely, a locutionary act or an act that have taken place; an illocutionary act or a real action that has been performed by the utterance; and a perlocutionary act, which is the effect of the utterance on the listener or doer of the action (1998; 2001). Conversational implicature is a pragmatic area, which explains how listeners of a message manage to work out the complete and underlying message from speakers, and is a message that is not found in the simple sense of the statement (2001). In simple context, conversational implicature focuses on the message implied by a statement.  (1975) points out that the Cooperative Principle assumes that different factors cooperate in a specific conversation by contributing to the ongoing speech event, and can be further explained by stating that in verbal communication, individuals tend to be relevant to what they mean to say and to whom an utterance is made (1998). From this, it can be understood that in the cooperative principle, many individuals take part in the conversation, who give out relevant ideas regarding a specific subject. Last major area is politeness, which was defined by Leech as a form of behavior that establishes and maintains comity, and the ability of an individual participating in a social interaction to engage in communication in an atmosphere of relative harmony (2001). These four major areas of pragmatics are important to take note of because their interaction plays a vital role in conveying messages, especially in relation to expressing those using different languages. In addition, these four major areas can be used as effective means of intercultural communication.

            In understanding the practical applications of pragmatism, it is relevant to relate it to two important concepts that are important in understanding the English language. These two concepts are language acquisition and intercultural communication. Language acquisition is the process of learning a native or a second language, which usually starts from early childhood, wherein an individual is taught a language or languages as a means of communication ( 2007). In this process, an individual learns and adapt the four structural components of language, namely, phonology, semantics, grammar, and pragmatics, which are not only used for day-to-day conservations, but also for special purposes, including poems, songs, legal documents, and many others ( 2007). The acquisition of language or languages would not be relevant and effective if not used as a means of effective communication. It is likewise useful for effective intercultural communication, which is defined as the interaction between individuals from differing cultures or the communication between groups with different value structures, and its understanding has become increasingly important to a world of blending cultures, experiences and practices ( 1996). In addition, these two concepts can be integrated in the process of education and teaching, which further enhances and molds the learning process through effective communication. The various aspects interacting in the culture of different societies could be better understood and conveyed with the use of a developed language, specifically in terms of making intercultural relationships and communication among the peoples belonging to different cultures and countries.

              The four major areas of pragmatics can be used in further understanding the concepts of language acquisition and intercultural communication. In this discussion, conversational implications and speech acts will be considered to be covered under cooperative principles, thus, politeness and cooperative principle will be thoroughly discussed in relation to the two concepts mentioned. It has been discussed that cooperative principle is the way wherein individuals try to make conversations work (2001), thus, is crucial in generating effective communication. This involves the interaction and the participation of many factors and individuals, making a relevant discussion regarding a certain idea. In this sense, cooperative principle involves understanding a message and doing an act, which becomes a vital factor in making communication and language effective. Likewise, politeness also takes part in such a cause because this major area entitles an individual to extend his or her attitudes for a harmonious coexistence with other individuals. The interaction of politeness and cooperative principle enables individuals to communicate, both among native and non-native speakers. Communication between these two types of speakers becomes relevant to the interaction of cooperative principle and politeness because the ability of an individual to communicate with both speakers determines the effectiveness of language acquisition and intercultural communication. With this, the implications of pragmatics can be given emphasis.

            Primarily, the use of pragmatics in relation to language acquisition and intercultural communication can be emphasized, as being an effective means of successful communication, which will be used for conveying messages and expressing views and opinions regarding a variety of subjects and ideas. Another practical application of pragmatics is enhancing education, which would entitle many academic institutions to further improve and develop their curriculum in order to raise their teaching standards for the benefit of the students and anyone who is eager to learn from the institution. Third practical application of pragmatics research is enhancing the roles of teachers and other academic instructors in the classroom, as not only a mediator of socialization processes, but also as the one who acknowledges the enormous variety in teaching style from where the learners are dependent upon ( 2001). The role of teachers has a big influence on the foreign language classroom, who usually are non-native speakers of the English language in many academic institutions nowadays ( 2001). With this, the role that pragmatics play in language acquisition and intercultural communication becomes crucial in education.

             Fourth practical application of pragmatics is further understanding the complexity of the English language, in relation to its existing varieties, due to two main reasons. First reason is the expansion of the usage areas through British and American influence, and second is the increased global migration of the language, which results in frequent contact between speakers who usually do not mix into a stable community, but rather into one that is in constant change (2004). The continuous change and evolution of the English language in many countries becomes dependent on its change of use that is integrated on the language and culture of specific societies. Fifth practical application of pragmatics research is being as a useful means of adapting to the changes that happen in the culture, society and language of a particular society and community. Because pragmatics focuses on the context and meaning, this could be used by cultures and societies as a means of effectively adjusting their beliefs and practices for the improvement of their society, such as what many forms of media is doing nowadays, which focuses on dissipating important information regarding the use of the Internet as a means of education. In relation to this is the sixth application, which is the use of pragmatics as a means of changing or modifying existing knowledge and information in the society. Its use can be crucial to changing the meanings and interpretations of existing information and knowledge in the society that would be crucial to the development of individuals. An example that can be given is thorough explanation and correcting information from history books regarding the changes, as results of current researches and findings. Seventh practical application of pragmatics research can also be used for developing new forms of communication and language, such as the development of “Englog”, which is the Tagalog-inflused English spoken in the Philippines, and the “Japlish”, which is the cryptic English poetry beloved of Japanese copywriters (2007). Eight application of pragmatics is related to becoming a good means for relating with individuals from other cultures, in relation to having an effective intercultural communication, which results to successful business negotiations, marriages, friendships and many others. Lastly, pragmatic research can be used in the application of language in terms of other forms of media, such as television, radio, newspapers, and the Internet.

 

 

Question 2: Analyze the theoretical issues involved in aiming to ensure mutual intelligibility across international varieties of English and the practical pedagogical implications for teachers of English to speakers of other languages.

 

            The use of the English language nowadays has become more developed and diverse compared in the recent centuries. The continuous and drastic changes happening in different societies have led to the continuous development of the English language, not only in terms of speaking it, but also in writing, teaching, understanding and interpreting the language. Globalization and internationalization have been largely contributory to the issue of English to be regarded as an international language. The continuous development and evolution of the English language has also led to the generation of different varieties of English that are being used in different nations worldwide.

             It has been reported that a language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country, such as being spoken as a mother tongue or in large numbers of population (1997). For this to happen, a language has to be taken up by other countries that do not speak the language to give it a special place within their communities, which could be done in two ways. First, that specific language can be made as the official language of that country, and be used as a means of communication in the different aspects, such as in the government, the law, media, and educational system, which could be regarded as the ‘second language’ of that country. Second, a specific language can be made a priority in a country’s foreign-language teaching; given this language has no official status, which should be taught in academic institutions of that country (1997). Practically, this is how the English language became the ‘second language’ of many countries, especially with regards to the fact that the countries from which the language came from have a very large influence in different domains around the world.

            In relation to this is the concept of EIL or English as an International Language. EIL involves a re-examination of the native speaker as the standard of grammar, pronunciation, textual organization and many others that non-native speakers should aim for, and may lead to changes in the content, technique and recipient of teachings (2003). The issue of EIL becomes relevant, most especially in terms of education and teaching, for this is the domain wherein the meaning and interpretation of the English language becomes very crucial. This issue is practically related to the continuous changes and development of the society and technology, such that these changes lead the society to come up with different interpretations and uses of the English language in their daily activities. This has led to the development of the different varieties of the English language that are used in different countries.

            It has been reported that languages change over time and space, which is an important characteristic of human language (1997). This is actually the challenge to first language speakers, who must be able to accept the changes and developments occurring in an environment, where the English language is not always used, such as in the home and where another language may directly and indirectly influence those processes (1997). From this, the development of language varieties, such as the Spanglish (Spanish-English) and Taglish (Tagalog-English) must not be a shocking issue. However, because the Standard English is from where the other language varieties developed, many argue that it must be used and taught in academic institutions instead of teaching the dialect or language variety. Today, due to globalization and internationalization, especially with the use of the World Wide Web, the use of the English language has become more intense. The extent and depth of knowledge in using the English language becomes one of the bases for the competence and success of many individuals and societies. With this, it can be understood that the simultaneous development of such aspects lead societies to give high regard for the English language.

            A concept related to such an issue is the concept of mutual intelligibility, which is characteristic of individuals, wherein one can readily understand all other set of languages without intentional study or effort (2007). This can be defined using an example wherein a Person X claims to understand the language of Person Y, but on the other hand, Person Y denies the fact that he or she understands the language of Person X, such as the crisis between Polish and Russian speakers (1996). Because the use of the English language as an international or universal language has already been recognized, it can be argued that the concept of mutual intelligibility in relation to language varieties must be addressed, especially concerning teaching and learning. Mutual intelligibility in its traditional linguistic sense recognizes the fact that the native-speaker varieties are set up as learning targets. This means that the focus of teaching and education is on the native or Standard English varieties, wherein most of the other language varieties developed. In addition, in its traditional linguistic sense, learning English as a foreign language meant learning it for interaction with native speakers, attaining native speaker competence, and learning the language to comprehend and adopt cultural conventions of native speakers (Acar, 2006). On the other hand, mutual intelligibility in EIL can be addressed by the fact that it focuses on recognizing the existence of English language varieties, including the differences in accents, pronunciation and grammar. Control with this kind of teaching and learning recognizes that there exist certain sounds that are unique to English, with the knowledge of the individual character of English that is relatively stress-timed, and with the articulation of words that change in length, pitch, and volume ( 2002). These factors assist and promote mutual intelligibility in EIL.

            In relation to the issue of establishing EIL as a learning target, several theoretical issues must be recognized. First theoretical issue to be addressed in establishing EIL as a learning target is its recognition and the existence of dialects or English language varieties, which might confuse the understanding of the message conveyed. Although dialects are characterized by identifiable differences in terms of pronunciation, lexical choice or usage, and grammar (2000), some aspects may be misinterpreted, depending on the diction and grammar used in the dialect. In addition, the use of a specific word may differ in meaning, as used by the native speaker, thus, making the issue more complicated. Thus, with this issue, the training of teachers plays important roles as best informants for learners ( 2002). Second issue to be addressed is the continued use of language varieties, such as Taglish, Spanglish, and Japlish does not promote the proper and theoretical use of the English language in their own country. Academic institutions play a crucial role in the promotion and education of the English language, thus, must be able to reduce the use of such varieties. Third theoretical issue is that the continued use of the language varieties would make it more difficult for practice and teaching of the proper Standard English language, thus, making it more challenging for English teachers to impart their knowledge and understanding to learners. Fourth issue is that its retention may somehow decrease the English-speaking competence of many individuals in the society. It has been mentioned that the English language nowadays has become the basis and foundation of globalization and internationalization of many countries. Thus, altering the meaning, pronunciation, and grammar of the English language may decrease the potential of individuals to develop. Lastly, limited knowledge in the proper English language limits the vocabulary and English-speaking and writing skills of many individuals, thus, limits their ability to relate with other native or non-native speakers of the language.

            In relation to such issues are the pedagogical implications of EIL on second language teaching. Primarily, teachers and other academic instructors would be able to assess themselves in the extent of their knowledge and skills regarding the English language. In simple terms, teachers would become more linguistically aware of their English-speaking abilities. With this, they would have the opportunity to avail training and development, which would improve their skills and allow them to gain more knowledge, such as learning new teaching approaches and language forms. Second, due to bilingualism, several language teaching policies were developed, which would address English language problems (1997). In addition, these policies would be able to assist teachers with their decision-making (1997), and assess them with the use of more applicable teaching approaches. Third effect or implication is the fact that with second language teaching, much easier understanding of the English language can be achieved because students would easily comprehend and absorb the English words, with the guide of their native language. Fourth implication is the fact that many students and teachers would be able to recognize the uniqueness of different cultures, including those in pragmatics and rhetorical style (McKay, 2003). This somehow promotes cultural sensitivity on the learners, such that they become exposed and opened to changes caused by the influences of other English language variety. However, a negative implication of this is related to translation problems (1997), wherein students become dependent on the native language translation of English words, which gives further difficulty in teaching on the part of the academic instructors.

 

 

Teaching Ethics in Speech-Language Pathology

Teaching Ethics in Speech-Language Pathology

 

 

 

Ethics is defined in  Dictionary of the English Language (2001) as “a discipline dealing with good and evil and with moral duty and moral principles or practice. (1989) defined ethics as “moral principles or values that address whether actions, intentions, and goals are right or wrong”. These two definitions suggest that an individual’s moral values or principles influence his or her decision-making.  (2001) further characterized ethics as the outer demonstration of morals, a collective system of principles, established accepted standards of conduct, and the value of behavioral influence on an individual or group.

 

 (1988) noted health care managers often make decisions based on the premise “this is how we have always done things”. If true, one must question whether or not this attitude is reflected in how speech-language pathology (SLP) graduate students are taught to make ethical decisions.
Academia’s primary purpose is to prepare professionals for practice in “real world” settings. As such, there is a need to examine how SLP faculty teaches ethical decision-making. In particular, one might ask -- Is instruction with regard to ethical decision making limited to understanding a set of guidelines, or do faculty teach how to apply ethics to a decision making process?


 

 (1994) dissertation was designed to explore what American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) accredited programs were doing to provide ethics education for students-in-training.  (1996) wrote a text devoted exclusively to ethics in SLP and audiology. In fact, an initial premise in the founding of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) were the ethical concerns about the well-being of consumers (1989; 1994).
Nonetheless, as compared to other allied health disciplines, the profession of speech-language pathology appears to be in its infancy regarding a comprehensive education-based approach to ethics and related decision making protocols. Empirically-based ethics education is apparently lacking, and to strengthen the profession, speech-language pathologists should investigate additional instruction and education relating to ethics and the SLP.

 

 

The Need for an Organizational Ethics

 

The need to teach ethics can be traced back to the early Greeks (1994;  1901). The early Greeks were concerned with the basic meaning of life in regard to duty, conduct, and morals. The interest, and indeed demand for teaching ethics at a professional level was catapulted into America’s conscience during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s (1994). Perhaps political, religious and business scandals raised concerns with the American public as to what does, or should constitute appropriate, moral and ethical behavior? Perhaps the American public currently demands accountability regardless of the profession or action, as a result of societal shift and the immediacy of the exchange of information resulting from modern media transmission?
Regardless, ethics and related concerns have become prominent in the clinical arena. SLP practitioners face ethical situations in which the idea of “self-serving” as opposed to the “well-being of consumer” must be addressed and competently managed.

 

Professional Ethics concerns one's conduct of behavior and practice when carrying out professional work. Such work may include consulting, researching, teaching and writing. The institutionalization of Codes of Conduct and Codes of Practice is common with many professional bodies for their members to observe. Any code may be considered to be a formalization of experience into a set of rules. A code is adopted by a community because its members accept the adherence to these rules, including the restrictions that apply.

 

It must be noted that there is a distinction between a profession such as Information Systems, and controlled professions such as Medicine and Law, where the loss of membership may also imply the loss of the right to practice. Apart from codes of ethics, professional ethics also concerns matters such as professional indemnity. Furthermore, as will readily be appreciated, no two codes of ethics are identical. They vary by cultural group, by profession and by discipline. The former of these three variations is one of the most interesting, as well as controversial, since it challenges the assumption that universal ethical principles exist. In some cultures, certain behaviors are certainly frowned upon, but in other cultures the opposite may be true.

 

Studies show that formal ethics programs are becoming increasingly common in U.S. organizations across the nonprofit, for-profit, and government sectors. Compared to the 1994 survey, the 2000 NBES finds dramatic increases in the percentage of employees who report that their organizations have ethics programs. In the nonprofit sector specifically, the 2000 NBES finds that nearly 90 percent of employees say their organizations have written standards of ethical conduct. In addition, 65 percent say their organizations provide some form of training about these standards, and more than 40 percent say a dedicated telephone line or office is available for ethics advice. Not surprisingly, the percentages are consistently higher among larger nonprofits - those with more than 500 employees - as compared to smaller ones.

Essentially, ethics programs are meant to affect how people think about and address ethical issues that arise on the job. Gretchen Winter, vice president of business practices at Baxter International, puts it this way: By providing employees with ethics standards, training, and resources to get advice, organizations seek to create a work environment where (1) it’s okay for employees to acknowledge that they have an ethical dilemma, and (2) resources are readily available to guide employees in working through such dilemmas before making decisions.

 

The 2000  finds much that is encouraging for organizations that are putting their efforts into workplace ethics. For example, employees have high expectations for ethics within their organizations. More than nine in 10 respondents say that they “expect their organizations to do what is right, not just what is profitable.” This finding suggests that most employees are not so cynical about ethics at work. This should be encouraging news for all executives pursuing ethics initiatives. Most recognize that the long-term success of any program requires the active support of employees.

 

Findings from the also show that both formal ethics programs and informal ethics practices are related to key outcomes. Employees who work in organizations with ethics programs, who see their leaders and supervisors modeling ethical behavior, and who see values such as honesty, respect, and trust applied “frequently” at work generally report more positive experiences in the workplace.

           

Ethics are making a comeback. To begin with, more and more corporations and businessmen and woman are now realizing that ethics aren’t checked at the door when entering the workplace. Ethics have every bit as much a place in the public as they do the private. How is it there should be separate sets of ethics, depending upon whether it is your personal life or your work life? The answer is that there shouldn’t be a separate set and in light of recent events that we see on our television sets as of late, more and more companies are realizing this fact.

 

Some companies are incorporating ethics into their training. It is s subject that can go hand-in-hand with business and when employees and CEO’s alike understand what ethics are about, business can improve. Not only will the community take note of the ethical nature of a business but also so will customers.

 

(1996) maintained that if “self-serving” practices were allowed to exist, the effects on a profession would be detrimental. However, the Principle of Ethics IV of the ASHA Code of Ethics (2001) allows a practitioner to be autonomous and to independently use professional judgment. Therefore, these issues are worthy of further exploration. Ethics and related concerns within the healthcare professions will continue to evolve due to technological advances; tele-practice, the Internet and the essence of complex medical procedures which prolong life (2001; 2001;1993). A challenge and an opportunity exists for professions and professionals to be cognizant of treatment outcomes and efficacy, with particular regard to ethical decision-making.

 

Ethical and Clinical Decision Making

 

 (2001) and (1988) suggested an ethical decision is influenced by the values and beliefs of an individual professional; whereas a clinical decision is one that affects the welfare of the person served by that professional.

Physicians may experience conflict between different ethical principles, between ethical and legal or regulatory requirements, or between their own ethical convictions and the demands of patients, proxy decision makers, other health professionals, employers or other involved parties. Training in ethical analysis and decision making during undergraduate, postgraduate and continuing medical education is recommended for physicians to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to deal with these conflicts. Consultation with colleagues, licensing authorities, ethicists, ethics committees or others who have expertise in these matters is also recommended.

 

The consensus statement sees the teaching of medical ethics and law as contributing to the overall objective of medical education the creation of good medical practitioners who will enhance and promote the health and medical welfare of the people they serve in ways which fairly and justly respect their dignity, autonomy and rights. To achieve these goals medical students must be able to understand the ethical principles and values underpinning good medical practice be able to think critically about ethics, reflecting on their own beliefs and understanding and appreciating alternative, perhaps competing, approaches; and "be able to argue and counter argue in order to contribute to informed discussion and debate." Students must know the main professional and legal obligations of medical professionals, especially those specified by the General Medical Council, and be able constructively to participate in the ethical and legal reasoning needed in everyday practice.

 

Influences on ethical decision-making have been previously documented (1993;  2001;  1996;  1994; 1994). Influences include; humanitarian efforts, the need to be cost-effective, the ability to perform an array of tasks competently and efficiently, the need to meet consumer demands in an educated society, downsizing of staff which leads to restricted interactions with colleagues and supervisors, and the situations in which such decisions are made.

 

Using what she identified as Purtilo’s model,  (2001) outlined a process for ethical decision-making. The process begins with data gathering, including; obtaining facts, specifying the context of interactions and identifying the source of the information. Once completed, the individual establishes the ethical problem (if any) and can then examine the “morally correct course of action, identify the primary decision maker, and take steps to maintain the integrity of the individual and the profession” (). The individual should evaluate the situation based on ethical theories and/or models and must consider the perspective used, as well as the areas of conflict and decide if a dilemma exists (). The individual explores all avenues of choice, recognition of options, immediate, and future consequences of those options and an ultimate choice of the “best” option emerges () and a decision is made. The individual should be able to act in a manner beneficial to the present situation, with a likely impact on decisions and situations in the future. Finally, the individual self-evaluates the action and the outcome to recognize what went well, what could have been done differently, and the influence on the outlook, perceptions, and careers of others . Bloom’s Taxonomy, as described by  (2000), required an individual to progress through cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) to achieve an ethical outcome. In Horowitz’s final step an individual must conduct self-analysis, similar to the evaluation stage in Bloom’s hierarchy.  (2001) model loosely followed a total quality management process which included; brainstorming, gathering facts, planning, implementing the plan, collecting and evaluating data.

 

 (1988) noted that legal decisions or ethical actions should be examined within an ethical and/or clinical decision making framework.  proposed that individuals be taught ethical and legal principles by focusing on the content of ethics education in undergraduate and graduate course work and through continuing education. Storch suggested education in ethics should be embedded instructionally into existing courses and delivered through methods such as case scenarios and discussions. If there is to be a comprehensive understanding of ethical decision-making, basic principles, concepts and theories of ethics must be addressed. Some principles of ethics for professionals have been previously presented in the literature (1994; 1995; 2000; 1994;1988) and have included discussions on; autonomy (the right to function as an independent decision maker), beneficence (concerned with benefit), fidelity (following the Code of Ethics), justice (the fairness with which one practices), nonmaleficence (attempts to avoid harm) and veracity (recognition of facts as well as the avoidance of misrepresentation of ones’ professional expertise and training) see  2001; 1994.

 

(2001) presented the concepts of ethics as including equity (fairness, nondiscriminatory practice), veracity (dealing with facts), confidentiality (maintaining client’s privacy), paternalism (parent-child-like relationships), and informed consent (agreeing to a proposed method). suggested exploration of these concepts should lead to consideration of “Meta-ethics” which focuses attention on deontological theories and teleological ethics. Deontological theories are concerned with how an individual’s “duties and rights influence that individual” and teleological ethics are “concerned with the consequences and the ultimate good”.

 

If an individual is to make ethical clinical decisions, that individual must understand the clinical process and there must be pre-existing knowledge about ethical theories and methods.  (2001) proposed a plan that included an explanation of the need for ethics education; definitions, basic principles and concepts of ethics; types of ethics education; and steps to include in the decision-making process. Similar plans have been presented by others (1995; 2000;  1994; 1988). If SLPs are going to explore the challenges faced in clinical decision-making, consideration has to be given to ways in which ones’ duties and values affect this process. In addition, consumer perceptions of ethical behavior may not match those of professionals.
If an ethical decision is in conflict with the viewpoint of a particular individual, he or she may consider that decision unethical. Individuals interpret actions according to their perceptions. For example, the ASHA Code of Ethics (2001) mandates that speech-language pathologists protect the welfare of individuals they serve.  (1989) agreed that quality care should be provided to benefit the client -- not the profession or the professional.

 

The Standards for Accreditation of Graduate Education Programs (1999) required inclusion of ethics instruction in speech-language pathology curricula, yet the specifics are left to individual training programs. Each ASHA accredited program determines the format in which ethics are taught, the number of hours, and whether instruction is embedded in other courses or offered as a formal academic course for academic credit. Strong support for teaching ethical decision-making processes comes from state regulatory agencies charged with monitoring ethical behavior among professionals (2001; 2001). Denton et al. noted, professionals must recognize the role of ethics education, legalities involved in professional practice and the need to continuously define ethical behavior due to societal changes as well as technological advances.

 

SLP has demonstrated a slower emergence in concentrated efforts to teach ethics (1993; 1994). It was not until 1988 that ASHA formed the Council on Professional Ethics (1989). Thus, as a profession, SLP is only in the early stages of discussing and understanding ethics education and the relationship to professional practice. Interested SLPs might note documentation regarding the importance of ethics education by related disciplines (1991; , 2000;1996; 1999). However, related disciplines do not yet have well-established instructional methods that could be used as a model (1995; 1996;  1997;  1999) for SLPs.

Many students enrolled in speech-language pathology training programs do not take formal courses in ethics. However, they are exposed to ethics education embedded in the curriculum (1994; 1994). . (1993) used a questionnaire to survey SLP training programs in the United States to determine the format in which ethics education was provided. Pannbacker and her colleagues found the majority of responding programs used some form of embedded instruction such as discussions (77%), lectures (75%) and modeling of appropriate behavior (54%). The majority of responding programs (91%) did not offer a formal course in ethics and 85% of respondents spent no more than 20 hours teaching ethics. In medical schools, 28 hours of instruction in ethics is provided (2000). (1993) found that 91% of respondents stated training programs should offer ethics education.

 

 (1994) analyzed data from 124 ASHA-accredited training programs to determine how ethics were being taught and to invite opinions as to what ethics should be taught. Ethics education was considered important by 97% of the respondents.  (1994) found that 100% of the respondents reported their students were given information about the ASHA Code of Ethics. Young noted differences between how ethics should be taught and how ethics were taught. Regarding reimbursement, 93% agreed payment methods should be taught, while only 75% reported teaching such method. Regarding confidentiality, 92% agreed with its importance while only 53% provided instruction about confidentiality. When asked if students were given information about reporting questionable behavior by another professional, 96% agreed to its importance; however, only 73% taught students how to handle these types of situations, and 38% of respondents agreed ethical theories, models, and decision-making should be provided, yet only 23% reported actual instruction.

 

While there is a need to teach professional ethics in speech-language pathology, (1994) cautioned against teaching the principles only to students, new clinicians, or even established professionals. They supported the need for the profession to develop an overall understanding of ethics to support the premise that ethics are integral to practice. In spite of the long-standing premise that ethics are critical, the current status is that few formal courses in ethics are taught (1993;1994).

 

As the profession of SLP continues to change and expand, members must prepare to take the next step in ethics education. Professionals need to understand ethics, values, and their relationship to the decision-making process. Examination of moral values can assist with ethical decision-making and broaden the understanding of diversity. It should be recognized that “codes of ethics” only serve as guidelines for making decisions—clinically and ethically. Professional codes of ethics are policies set forth to govern professional conduct, they are not exhaustive or all-inclusive.

In the end, it’s all about what a person understands about ethics. Many university curriculums are now heavily applying the teaching of Ethics and for good reason. Young minds will take this information into the workforce and understand that ethics need to be applied there as well as in the private sector.

Corporations and professional organizations will be able to avoid embarrassing scandals that are presented all over national news hat are presented all over national news. Small business will be able to keep and attract more clients and customers. Negotiations between businesses could be accomplished with more consideration for the other company in mind, which would only help both. Above all, a high level of ethics in your business should be in place at least for the customers. If anything, it is the customer that should be considered the most when it comes to ethical business practices. In the long run, a company will reap great profits from a customer base that feels it is being treated fairly and truthfully.

 

Teaching Ethics in Speech-Language Pathology

Teaching Ethics in Speech-Language Pathology

 

 

Ethics is defined in  New Dictionary of the English Language (2001) as “a discipline dealing with good and evil and with moral duty and moral principles or practice” ().  (1989) defined ethics as “moral principles or values that address whether actions, intentions, and goals are right or wrong” (). These two definitions suggest that an individual’s moral values or principles influence his or her decision-making. and  (2001) further characterized ethics as the outer demonstration of morals, a collective system of principles, established accepted standards of conduct, and the value of behavioral influence on an individual or group.

 

 (1988) noted health care managers often make decisions based on the premise “this is how we have always done things” (p. 288). If true, one must question whether or not this attitude is reflected in how speech-language pathology (SLP) graduate students are taught to make ethical decisions.
Academia’s primary purpose is to prepare professionals for practice in “real world” settings. As such, there is a need to examine how SLP faculty teaches ethical decision-making. In particular, one might ask -- Is instruction with regard to ethical decision making limited to understanding a set of guidelines, or do faculty teach how to apply ethics to a decision making process?


 

 (1994) dissertation was designed to explore what American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) accredited programs were doing to provide ethics education for students-in-training.  (1996) wrote a text devoted exclusively to ethics in SLP and audiology. In fact, an initial premise in the founding of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) were the ethical concerns about the well-being of consumers (1989; 1994).
Nonetheless, as compared to other allied health disciplines, the profession of speech-language pathology appears to be in its infancy regarding a comprehensive education-based approach to ethics and related decision making protocols. Empirically-based ethics education is apparently lacking, and to strengthen the profession, speech-language pathologists should investigate additional instruction and education relating to ethics and the SLP.

 

The Need for an Organizational Ethics

 

The need to teach ethics can be traced back to the early Greeks ( 1994; 1901). The early Greeks were concerned with the basic meaning of life in regard to duty, conduct, and morals. The interest, and indeed demand for teaching ethics at a professional level was catapulted into America’s conscience during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s (1994). Perhaps political, religious and business scandals raised concerns with the American public as to what does, or should constitute appropriate, moral and ethical behavior? Perhaps the American public currently demands accountability regardless of the profession or action, as a result of societal shift and the immediacy of the exchange of information resulting from modern media transmission?
Regardless, ethics and related concerns have become prominent in the clinical arena. SLP practitioners face ethical situations in which the idea of “self-serving” as opposed to the “well-being of consumer” must be addressed and competently managed.

 (1996) maintained that if “self-serving” practices were allowed to exist, the effects on a profession would be detrimental. However, the Principle of Ethics IV of the ASHA Code of Ethics (2001) allows a practitioner to be autonomous and to independently use professional judgment. Therefore, these issues are worthy of further exploration. Ethics and related concerns within the healthcare professions will continue to evolve due to technological advances; tele-practice, the Internet and the essence of complex medical procedures which prolong life (2001;  2001; 1993). A challenge and an opportunity exists for professions and professionals to be cognizant of treatment outcomes and efficacy, with particular regard to ethical decision-making.

 

Ethical and Clinical Decision Making

 

 (2001) and  (1988) suggested an ethical decision is influenced by the values and beliefs of an individual professional; whereas a clinical decision is one that affects the welfare of the person served by that professional.

Influences on ethical decision-making have been previously documented (1993; 2001; 1996; 1994; 1994). Influences include; humanitarian efforts, the need to be cost-effective, the ability to perform an array of tasks competently and efficiently, the need to meet consumer demands in an educated society, downsizing of staff which leads to restricted interactions with colleagues and supervisors, and the situations in which such decisions are made.

Using what she identified as Purtilo’s model,  (2001) outlined a process for ethical decision-making. The process begins with data gathering, including; obtaining facts, specifying the context of interactions and identifying the source of the information. Once completed, the individual establishes the ethical problem (if any) and can then examine the “morally correct course of action, identify the primary decision maker, and take steps to maintain the integrity of the individual and the profession” ). The individual should evaluate the situation based on ethical theories and/or models and must consider the perspective used, as well as the areas of conflict and decide if a dilemma exists (). The individual explores all avenues of choice, recognition of options, immediate, and future consequences of those options and an ultimate choice of the “best” option emerges () and a decision is made. The individual should be able to act in a manner beneficial to the present situation, with a likely impact on decisions and situations in the future (p. 4). Finally, the individual self-evaluates the action and the outcome to recognize what went well, what could have been done differently, and the influence on the outlook, perceptions, and careers of others ().  Taxonomy, as described by  (2000), required an individual to progress through cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) to achieve an ethical outcome. In Horowitz’s final step an individual must conduct self-analysis, similar to the evaluation stage in Bloom’s hierarchy.  (2001) model loosely followed a total quality management process which included; brainstorming, gathering facts, planning, implementing the plan, collecting and evaluating data.

 

 (1988) noted that legal decisions or ethical actions should be examined within an ethical and/or clinical decision making framework. proposed that individuals be taught ethical and legal principles by focusing on the content of ethics education in undergraduate and graduate course work and through continuing education.  suggested education in ethics should be embedded instructionally into existing courses and delivered through methods such as case scenarios and discussions (). If there is to be a comprehensive understanding of ethical decision-making, basic principles, concepts and theories of ethics must be addressed. Some principles of ethics for professionals have been previously presented in the literature (1994; 1995;2000; 1994; 1988) and have included discussions on; autonomy (the right to function as an independent decision maker), beneficence (concerned with benefit), fidelity (following the Code of Ethics), justice (the fairness with which one practices), nonmaleficence (attempts to avoid harm) and veracity (recognition of facts as well as the avoidance of misrepresentation of ones’ professional expertise and training) see  2001;  1994.

 

 (2001) presented the concepts of ethics as including equity (fairness, nondiscriminatory practice), veracity (dealing with facts), confidentiality (maintaining client’s privacy), paternalism (parent-child-like relationships), and informed consent (agreeing to a proposed method) (). Horowitz suggested exploration of these concepts should lead to consideration of “Meta-ethics” which focuses attention on deontological theories and teleological ethics. Deontological theories are concerned with how an individual’s “duties and rights influence that individual” () and teleological ethics are “concerned with the consequences and the ultimate good” ().

If an individual is to make ethical clinical decisions, that individual must understand the clinical process and there must be pre-existing knowledge about ethical theories and methods.  (2001) proposed a plan that included an explanation of the need for ethics education; definitions, basic principles and concepts of ethics; types of ethics education; and steps to include in the decision-making process. Similar plans have been presented by others (1995; 2000;  1994; 1988). If SLPs are going to explore the challenges faced in clinical decision-making, consideration has to be given to ways in which ones’ duties and values affect this process. In addition, consumer perceptions of ethical behavior may not match those of professionals.

If an ethical decision is in conflict with the viewpoint of a particular individual, he or she may consider that decision unethical. Individuals interpret actions according to their perceptions. For example, the ASHA Code of Ethics (2001) mandates that speech-language pathologists protect the welfare of individuals they serve.  (1989) agreed that quality care should be provided to benefit the client -- not the profession or the professional.

 

The Standards for Accreditation of Graduate Education Programs ( 1999) required inclusion of ethics instruction in speech-language pathology curricula, yet the specifics are left to individual training programs. Each ASHA accredited program determines the format in which ethics are taught, the number of hours, and whether instruction is embedded in other courses or offered as a formal academic course for academic credit. Strong support for teaching ethical decision-making processes comes from state regulatory agencies charged with monitoring ethical behavior among professionals (2001;2001). noted, professionals must recognize the role of ethics education, legalities involved in professional practice and the need to continuously define ethical behavior due to societal changes as well as technological advances.

 

SLP has demonstrated a slower emergence in concentrated efforts to teach ethics (1993; 1994). It was not until 1988 that ASHA formed the Council on Professional Ethics (1989). Thus, as a profession, SLP is only in the early stages of discussing and understanding ethics education and the relationship to professional practice. Interested SLPs might note documentation regarding the importance of ethics education by related disciplines ( 1991;  2000;1996; 1999). However, related disciplines do not yet have well-established instructional methods that could be used as a model (1995; 1996; 1997; 1999) for SLPs.

Many students enrolled in speech-language pathology training programs do not take formal courses in ethics. However, they are exposed to ethics education embedded in the curriculum (1994; 1994).  (1993) used a questionnaire to survey SLP training programs in the United States to determine the format in which ethics education was provided. Pannbacker and her colleagues found the majority of responding programs used some form of embedded instruction such as discussions (77%), lectures (75%) and modeling of appropriate behavior (54%). The majority of responding programs (91%) did not offer a formal course in ethics and 85% of respondents spent no more than 20 hours teaching ethics. In medical schools, 28 hours of instruction in ethics is provided ( 2000).  (1993) found that 91% of respondents stated training programs should offer ethics education.

 

 (1994) analyzed data from 124 ASHA-accredited training programs to determine how ethics were being taught and to invite opinions as to what ethics should be taught. Ethics education was considered important by 97% of the respondents.  (1994) found that 100% of the respondents reported their students were given information about the ASHA Code of Ethics. Young noted differences between how ethics should be taught and how ethics were taught. Regarding reimbursement, 93% agreed payment methods should be taught, while only 75% reported teaching such methods (). Regarding confidentiality, 92% agreed with its importance while only 53% provided instruction about confidentiality (). When asked if students were given information about reporting questionable behavior by another professional, 96% agreed to its importance; however, only 73% taught students how to handle these types of situations (), and 38% of respondents agreed ethical theories, models, and decision-making should be provided, yet only 23% reported actual instruction.

 

While there is a need to teach professional ethics in speech-language pathology,  (1994) cautioned against teaching the principles only to students, new clinicians, or even established professionals. They supported the need for the profession to develop an overall understanding of ethics to support the premise that ethics are integral to practice. In spite of the long-standing premise that ethics are critical, the current status is that few formal courses in ethics are taught ( 1993; 1994).

 

As the profession of SLP continues to change and expand, members must prepare to take the next step in ethics education. Professionals need to understand ethics, values, and their relationship to the decision-making process. Examination of moral values can assist with ethical decision-making and broaden the understanding of diversity. It should be recognized that “codes of ethics” only serve as guidelines for making decisions—clinically and ethically. Professional codes of ethics are policies set forth to govern professional conduct, they are not exhaustive or all-inclusive.

Computer Aided Learning as an Efficient Method of Teaching

Computer Aided Learning as an Efficient Method of Teaching

 

 

            The face of education is changing rapidly as a direct result of the innovative and dynamic world of computer technology. Many parts of the modern world are saying goodbye to chalk dusts floating in the air and repetitive multiplication and grammar exercises. Modern students of today are more likely to face computer screens than blackboard. As the tools of education change, so too does the nature of learning and acquiring knowledge. But how effective is computer aided learning to traditional teaching methods is yet to be proven.

For teachers to be effective they must first recognize that students learn in different ways and then the teacher must use this information to better facilitate student learning.

Three principles of learning that  (1992) advocated were learning by doing, as one learns to do what one does, and teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate practice.

 (1993) believed similar principles, in which learners will learn what they practice, and supervised practice is more effective when it occurs in a functional environmental setting.

The use of Information Technology (IT) in engineering education offers the opportunity to teach concepts more effectively than the methods of instruction most commonly used. IT can assist students in making abstractions and improve their understanding of more complicated concepts starting from simple principles and/or real-world physical phenomena (2004).

In the medical field the amount of medical information has doubled approximately every second year since 1980. This implies that oral health students as well as professionals need to manage the flow of information rationally, in order to learn how to undertake evidence-based decision-making for diagnosis and treatment in a given patient situation. Current research indicates that computer connected databases and computer assisted learning (CAL) may enhance learning and provide the clinician with information for decision-making when treating patients. Multimedia for CAL, which combines audio and visual data in an interactive form, has proved to be an effective tool in education. CAL may supplement and reinforce more traditional learning and create opportunities to illustrate clinical situations in an interactive way. CAL has the potential to help students develop skills and knowledge. Students, staff and professionals consider CAL stimulating and motivating. Students easily adapt to CAL although their current computer literacy is still low. New authoring tools make it easier for faculties to develop their own CAL software. In the future we will see more sophisticated software with virtual patients who can communicate and interact with the student in a very realistic way. The software will even “step out” from the screen and help the student with clinical procedures. However, at present CAL should not replace traditional education, but rather be used more as a supplement and for self-directed studies (2001).

One study conducted by  (2001) was designed to examine the effectiveness of using computer-aided instruction (CAI) to teach sewing skills in apparel design programs and compare its efficacy to traditional classroom instruction. Data collection procedures involved using both methods of instruction, CAI and tradition classroom instruction, to teach the sewing skill of inserting a lapped zipper. Both groups were assessed for age, sewing experience, past sewing instruction, and computer skill background.

The dependent variable, quality of zipper insertion, was evaluated in light of the predictor variables of type of instruction, age, sewing experience, and computer skill background. Assessment of quality of insertion was done, with almost no variation in the outcome noted. The quality of product was high regardless of type of instruction.

The results of this study show that CAI can be successful in teaching a sewing skill. Computer-aided instruction, in the form of a sell-designed instruction module, accomplishes effective learning of sewing skills.

Another study conducted on the state of Idaho examined two types of computer aided instructional teaching strategies for eight grade pre-algebra instruction to traditional teaching strategies. For a period of 25 weeks during the 1999-2000 school year, 350 eighth grade pre-algebra students in six schools were studied. Ninety-four students received traditional instruction, 162 were instructed under the Accelerated Math system of computer-aided instruction, and 94 students were instructed using either Jostens or CCC computer aided instructional strategies. In October, each student was assessed with the standardized Iowa Test of Basic Skills. In May, the Iowa Test was given to the sample group again. The difference in Mathematics Total scores was used to measure academic progress. From pretest to posttest, students overall from the six schools of the study demonstrated significant gain in mathematical growth. Students using Accelerated Math scored significantly higher than students using traditional instruction and students being taught with Jostens or CCC software. Students from the bottom quartile, based upon the pretest, achieved higher rates of learning than students from the upper quartile. In addition, the data suggested bottom quartile students receiving instruction with Accelerated Math performed at a significantly higher rate than students using Jostens or CCC software and students taught with traditional teaching strategies. Participants from the upper quartile showed no significant differences in achievement mean scores among the three teaching strategy groups (2001).

Indeed, the only permanent thing in this world is change. The world was never been more dynamic in history than today’s information age. In order to survive, we are always advised to keep at pace with change. The evolution of teaching styles from Plato to modern University professor is evident. Teachers don’t have to be obsolete, only, there are technologies that can make teaching easier, faster and informative.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Global Education

 

Introduction

Global Education

            (2003) defines Global education as a curriculum that seeks to prepare students to live in a progressively interconnected world where the study of human values, institutions, and behaviors are contextually examined through a pedagogical style that promotes critical engagement of complex, diverse information toward socially meaningful action (). According to  (2005), one of the most effective means of preparing the Australia to different local, regional and global challenges is through education (). Global education aims to create global citizens that are aware of the world around them, respect and value diversity, take action for human rights, social justice and sustainability, and take responsibility for their own actions. It also seeks to broaden knowledge and understanding through interconnectedness and interdependence, sustainable environment, economic development, diversity, human rights, change management, conflict resolution and peace building. Global education also aims to develop values and attitudes such as personal identity and self-esteem, care and compassion, responsibility and cooperation, social justice, respect for diversity, environmental sustainability. Skills and processes development is also one of the goals of global education. Global education aims to increase the citizens’ involvement in the global community. Learning emphases across the curriculum includes identity and cultural identity; globalization and interdependence; dimensions of change; sustainable futures; peace building and conflict; and social justice and human rights ().

 

Overview : Global Perspectives Statement

            Twenty-first century Australians are members of a global community, connected to the whole world by ties of culture, economics, politics and shared environmental concerns. At the heart of global education is enabling young people to participate in shaping a better-shared future for the world. Global education in Australia is being supported by the national government and many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) like Catholic Relief, Oxfam, UNICEF, Communities Abroad, etc. The Australian governments together with these NGOs have developed instructional materials for teachers. The funding for the global education resource and training centers in five of the eight states and territories comes from the Australian Agency for International Development. Many state education departments have taken the initiative to rewrite the curriculum to reflect the need of educating young people for life in a global society (2003). While global education has perhaps had the greatest impact in the area of society and environment, global perspectives are relevant across al learning areas. This is reflected in the curriculum frameworks and syllabuses, which have been developed over recent years in most states and territories. With its emphasis not only on developing knowledge and understanding but also on promoting positive values and equipping students ().

 

 

 

Global Perspectives Statement

            The Global Perspectives statement does not seek to prescribe curriculum content; rather it aims to clarify the goals rationale, emphases and processes of global education, to serve as a resource – a philosophical and practical reference point – for all Australian teachers and students.

Educational Rationale

            Educational Perspective offers students and teachers with an approach which takes into account the whole of human society and the environments in which people live; an emphasis on the future, the dynamic nature of human society, and each person’s capacity to choose and shape preferred futures; an opportunity to explore important themes such as change, interdependence, identity and diversity, rights and responsibilities, peace building, poverty and wealth, sustainability and global justice; a focus on cooperative learning and action, and shared responsibility; an emphasis on critical thinking and communication; and an opportunity to develop positive and responsible values and attributes, important skills and orientation to active participation.

            Global education does not simply aim to impart knowledge rather it seeks to open the minds of both teachers and students and to encourage every citizen of the global community to actively participate in shaping a shared future. It seeks to equip and enable young people for global citizenship ().

 

Introduction

Society and Environment Curriculum Guide

            The Curriculum Framework identifies the outcomes all students should achieve as a result of the learning programs they undertake in Western Australian schools. Schools and teachers develop learning programs according to their circumstances, ethos and the needs for their students to ensure they achieve these outcomes. The purpose of the Curriculum Framework Curriculum Guides is to support the implementation of the Curriculum Framework by articulating the content (knowledge, skills, understandings and values) to be taught for students to achieve the Curriculum Framework Overarching and Learning Area outcomes. Learning program planning may focus on particular outcomes across the four overlapping phases of development identified in the Curriculum Framework.

1. Early Childhood

            The focus is mainly on development of the processes and skills that will underpin future learning. The key emphases in this phase are on literacy, numeracy, social-emotional and physical development. Conceptual outcomes are mainly included as contexts for the development processes.

2. Middle Childhood

            Students continue to require learning experiences that support them in acquiring processes. The application of processes becomes a greater focus, as does acquisition of learning concepts.

 

3. Early Adolescence

            The focus shifts to the application of processes in the acquisition of knowledge. The scope and depth to which content is learned broadens and there is increased focus on the development and application of understandings.

4. Late Adolescence

            Content becomes more specialized and diverse. Learning programs may not provide learning opportunities across the full range of outcomes of the Curriculum Framework ().

.

Overview: Society and Environment Curriculum Framework

            The Society and Environment Learning area has seven outcomes.

1. Investigation, Communication and Participation

            The focus for learning in this phase is on developing investigation skills through play and experiential learning, exploring relevant familiar and/or everyday situations, recording information, categorizing and comparing main elements of an investigation, comparing information and interpretations with others, using oral, visual and written sources of information and sharing and questioning ideas and experiences.

2. Place and Space

            The focus for learning in this phase is on a range of familiar places in the local area; everyday terms that describe natural and built features; the concepts of land, water, continents and countries; sustainability as a form of caring for a place;  and the link between people and places.

3. Resources

            The focus for learning in this phase is on combining resources to make goods and provide services that satisfy needs and wants; familiar situations including home, school and the local community; alternate ways to use particular resources; protecting natural resources; etc.

4. Culture

            The focus for learning in this phase is on the concept of family; how families and personal experiences reflect cultural diversity; changing roles and relationships in families; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture – Australia’s national symbols.

5. Time, Continuity and Change

            The focus for learning in this phase is on personal life stories, family and local community histories; using time to measure, understand and sequence people and events; ways that heritage is represented and celebrated; etc.

6. Natural and Social Systems

            The focus for learning in this phase is on investigating natural systems; showing how humans interact with the natural world; caring for the environment; etc.

 

 

 

7. Active Citizenship

            The focus for learning in this phase is on personal and group behaviors and practices in the classroom and playground; actions that demonstrate the values, attitudes and dispositions that are the building blocks for citizenship;  etc.

().

 

Connections

Concepts and Topics

            One of the key emphases of global education is identity and cultural diversity, which seeks to promote a positive sense of identity and high self-esteem, together with a positive regard for the rights and identities of others. It also aims to develop a sense of shared identity with others, as a member of a community at the local and national levels as well as part of a global human society ( ). The Culture Phase of the Society and Environment Curriculum on the other hand introduces the students to the characteristics and influences of cultural groups, Australian identity and national symbols. The Active Citizenship Phase of the Society and Environment Curriculum, the students learn to value and respect others, uphold equality of all people and work cooperatively to resolve conflict peacefully. Global education also promotes social justice and human rights. The students explore different concepts of rights, each person’s responsibility to allow others to enjoy the same rights as oneself, and to uphold the rights and freedoms of individuals and communities who are disadvantaged and oppressed ()

.

Learning Processes

1. Global Education

            The nature of the classroom environment and processes strongly influences students’ attitudes and engagement with the world. Traditional teacher-centered learning approaches do not effectively promote values and skills which global education seeks to develop.  Principles such as an inclusive classroom; participation for all; student centered learning; experiential learning; inquiry based learning; interactivity; cooperative learning; self-esteem building; enabling critical literacy must be employed ( ).

.

2. Society and Environment Curriculum

            Content is sequenced over the four phases of development identified in the Curriculum Framework (Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, Early Adolescence and Late Adolescence). It provides a guide to the breath and depth of content typically taught in each phase of development for students to progress in their achievement. Content for particular outcomes can be integrated to promote a holistic approach to learning in society and environment. Learning for students can be enriched by planning to connect across learning areas ( ).

.

Teaching and Learning   

            The global education curriculum reflects awareness of Australia’s place as part of a regional global community. It has strong relevance for all students, including indigenous students and those from language backgrounds other than English. The curriculum includes consideration of the world beyond the rich countries on the ‘North’. The curriculum challenges and counters stereotypes of other countries and cultures. It also promotes social justice and human rights ().

The Society and Environment Curriculum aims to enable the students to make informed decisions and implement relevant social action through investigation, communication and participation. It also makes the students understand that the interaction people have with places in which they live is shaped by the location, patterns and processes associated with natural built features. Students understand that people attempt to meet their needs and wants by making optimum use of limited resources in enterprising ways. Students also develop an understanding that people form groups because of their shared understanding of the world and, in turn, they are influenced by particular culture so formed. Students understand that people’s actions and values are shaped by their understanding and interpretation of the past. Students also understand that systems provide order to the dynamic natural and social relationships occurring in the world. Students demonstrate active citizenship through their behaviors and practices in the school environment, in accordance with the principles and values associated with the democratic process, social justice and ecological sustainability ().

 

Conclusion

           Global education aims to promote students’ knowledge and awareness of world people, countries, culture and issues. It involves integrating a global perspective into classroom instruction through a focus on international themes, lessons built around global issues (peace, development, the environment, and human rights), classroom activities linking to students to the wider world concepts such as social responsibility and world citizenship. Global education arose out of new thinking in education and the social studies. Global education promotes knowledge, attitudes and skills relevant to living responsibly in a multicultural, interdependent world (200). Global education aims to educate the students about world countries and cultures; global problems and increase their global awareness, cultural appreciation, respect for diversity and empathy. The Society and environment Learning Area aims to develop the students’ skills in investigating societies and environments. It also aims to educate the students about the knowledge and values that develop an understanding of societies and environments at local, national and international levels. It also seeks to build skills and values required for participating in social action and presents examples of possible situations in which social action can be taken.

            The Society and Environment Learning Area focuses more on the development of the students’ social skills is dealing with national issues. It deals with human activities, natural features, resources, beliefs, cultures, cultural groups, history, natural systems, political systems, economic systems, democratic process, social justice and ecological sustainability at the national level. Global education on the other hand prepares the students to a much wider and culturally, politically and ecologically diverse community. The values, skills and concepts that the students learn from the Society and Environment Learning Area are significant in global education.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

History of the Desegregation of American Schools

History of the Desegregation of American Schools

 

Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isolated the black community geographically but also crippled them in different aspects of their society.  Such aspects are: economy, politics and culture. The geographic isolation of blacks undermines the power of pluralist politics and means that whites have less to gain when public funds and resources are channeled to all black areas and away from multiethnic communities. The isolation contributes to the disinvestment and decline in many urban black areas by making them vulnerable to cutbacks in public funds and services. White politicians are more apt to target black neighborhoods for spending cuts because of the minimal political fallout.

 

According to (1996), the story of international action against racial discrimination as of international action against many other evils, is that of the great effort to extend the rule of law. It is a highly political struggle, because it is about cajoling states to give up a little of their sovereignty. They are uncertain to do this unless they can get something in exchange. By complying with a convention they may be able to contribute to a cause they think important, to improve their image in the diplomatic world, or to put pressure on some other state of whose policies they disapprove.

 

The African American culture has been of great interest to a large number of studies. This is due to the unique and fascinating character and personality of its people. African Americans have a history and life experience that they alone fully understand. The civilization they experienced and the current social and economic pressures they endure are largely different from the more popular and highly researched lives of the Caucasians and Asians. As a race, these people have suffered greatly in the long story of their existence, and until these days, it is still evident in the low treatment of the racist and narrow-minded groups of people that, for some people, is inevitable in the global community that is now shared all over the world. This is evident in the calls that concerned individuals and private institutions, foundations and sectors that address anti-racism and anti-discrimination in the national and international setting. Such social stigma related to skin color is doubled by the discrimination felt by the African American gays and lesbians in their community and in the workplace. In effect, it is highly relevant that the roots of the nature of gender orientation be given light to others to fully understand and empathize with African American homosexuals.

 

The segregation and discrimination of the black urban community is the result of politics and economy in the mainstream history of the United States. It is also a given fact that the black community is in the side stream of America’s history. From 1450 -1750, the North American continent experienced enormous changes. The European explorers ventured to what they called then as the “New World” in search of vast amounts of natural wealth.  Corollary to these exploratory activities, these European explorers also traveled to Africa and began a trans-Atlantic slave trade.  Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas and traded there as slaves. This mass movement of people led to a new social and economic system; with the color of the skin as a determining factor whether one would live as a slave or as a free citizen. By 1750, both the free and enslaved black people showed an intense attachment to America. After 1750, many African-Americans already found their freedom. In 1830, Philadelphia held the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Color (later became the National Negro Convention). This organization for the black people was created to establish a black community and seek true freedom ( 1998).         

 

America is a country that places great values to education as an important characteristic in sustaining the democracy maintained and uphold by the Constitution.  The significance of education has long been hailed through the innovations in science and technology pioneered in the United States in the goal to provide the best kind of learning experience to the young members of the population. The support of the government and private sectors and organizations in promoting and upholding the right to education of every student has long been the driving and mechanical force in putting children in schools for them to avail the needs to be educated.  The United States in particular has been known to uphold freedom and equality in experiencing the good life.  The individualist cultural orientation of the country made the people of America to place importance in the concept of independence in the effort and time dedicated in advocating the relevance of individual choice and freedom.   And the application of such concepts in the everyday life importantly covers the aspect of education.

 

The problem it seems, with the educational system is that it has been too complacent or too comfortable to address the issues of institutionalized racism. The academe has taken refuge in its insistence that racism could not exist in an academic institute because of the ideals that the institute claim to uphold. In the University, no student or employee shall, on the basis of their race, color, or national origin be disqualified or excluded from participation in, be denied or deprived of the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any University program or activity. University programs and activities include, but are not limited to, admissions, recruitment, financial aid, academic programs, student treatment and services, counseling and guidance, discipline, classroom assignment, grading, recreation, physical education, athletics and employment (Campus Conduct). Most of the time, discrimination is associated with the act of making a disparity, as in favor of or against a person or thing. It is a form of behavior that shows prejudice, but not only the form. It is the failure to treat people in the same way. In most cases, discrimination exists because there is no acceptance and respect. It has also been influenced by traditions and cultures.

 

The rise of civil rights movement in America since 1940 brings a significant change in the life of the African-American people. Two of the primary goals of the modern civil rights movement are to push for educational change and to improve the educational situation of African-Americans. However, the reforms demanded by the movement were not well received by the majority of school personnel and researchers (1991). Many years of bloody revolutions and social uprisings took place before American schools; lunch counters and worksites were desegregated. President  issued an executive order in 1961 offering opportunities to the African-American community as compensation for years of discrimination. By the late 1960s, President  instructed companies working on federal projects to attain minority-hiring objectives. On the other hand, President , taking side against the Michigan in the Supreme Court case, said that he strongly supported diversity of all kinds including racial diversity in higher education ( 2003).

 

            In 1965, there were only few African-American students who chose to enroll at the previously all-white schools of Cave Street Elementary for grades one to six and Deshler High School for grades seven to twelve in Alabama. In Deshler, one’s race interfered with one’s right to have a decent education.  Maria, an African American student, recounted some incidents that demonstrated her perceptions of hostility about the educational atmosphere in Deshler (2000).  By the 1970s, African-Americans have shown intense interest in pursuing their educational goals. In 1992, 52 percent of them planned to proceed directly to a four-year course after high school graduation as compared to 32 percent in 1972.  Also, there was an increase on the percentage of African-Americans to enter academic programs at two-year colleges. During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of bachelor degrees given to African-Americans increased noticeably. In spite of these gains however, their number was still lesser compared to the number of white Americans and Asian-Americans who wanted to enroll in college after high school. The U.S. Census Bureau in 2000 revealed a lesser percentage of African-Americans who received bachelor’s degree in their 20s and 30s. This statistic is smaller than the percentage for all racial and ethnic groups in America, taken together. This discrepancy caught the attention of the political leaders in the United States that is why they wanted to increase the participation of African-Americans in higher education, as one of the country’s educational objectives ( 2002).

 

            According to the report made by the National Assessment of Educational Progress last 2000, the standardized test scores of average African-American and Hispanic students are lower, as compared to the scores of white students at comparable grade levels. The U.S. Department of Education concluded after its examination on 27 school reform models, that most of the reform models failed to make significant improvements. In January 2002, President , signed the No Child Left behind Act into law. This new education reform bill was designed basically to close the achievement gap between white upper-and middle-class public school students and poor children and children of color (2003). According to, U.S. Secretary of Education, he optimistically said before the National Press Club that every day our service to our children becomes better and each day we come one step closer to the future of excellence and inclusion, discarding the deficiencies and rectifying longstanding problems (2004).

 

             (1996) authored a book that deals with racism in schools, its effects on the academic performance, interpersonal relationships as well as the general outlook on life of African American students as well as other students of ‘color’. He pointed out how most academic institutions, in their confidence that racism has no place in such an idealistic institution often forget that some of their actions and behavior actually have racist implications. Accordingly, racism shows itself repeatedly in classrooms owing to the ignorance of individual teachers as well as administrators through institutionalized racism. The article entitled “A Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom” by Lillian Polite and Elizabeth Baird Saenger talks about creating classroom communities which are supposed to be, constructive, developmentally appropriate communities of learning that are necessary for solid learning to happen. There is an emphasis on everyone’s need to feel comfortable in order to take risks, and learning that is built on risk-taking. The problem is that teachers may also unwittingly create communities of silence ( 2003). 

 

The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special disabilities has long been a common issue in education. Arguments and debates have been raised in line with the right policies on how to educate children with special educational needs (SEN). According to  (1997), children with disabilities are traditionally educated in segregated classrooms, specifically designed to cater the students’ certain incapacities. Educators find this segregation system beneficial, as they are able to apply curriculum formulated specifically for special children. Likewise, children with disabilities benefit from this system not only because of the appropriate curriculum but the thought of attending classes with classmates of the same disabilities enhance their confidence or self-esteem as well. Furthermore, being segregated assures the security and sufficient support the special children needs. While social skill development may vary based from numerous results of previous studies, inclusion is capable of enhancing children’s academic achievement through speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Furthermore, several educators have argued that exposing children into ordinary education settings will be the most effective means of equipping children into better self-supportive adults in the future.

 

There are concepts of schools as ideological state apparatuses, and of cultural capital, used to analyze curriculum knowledge that has been selected, and cultural behaviors privileged and rewarded through both the formal and the hidden curricula. There are also identified mixture of gains and losses created by the National Curriculum in terms of educational equality regarding 'race', gender, special needs, sexual diversity and social class. The general principle is that policies are being directed toward school populations which are differentially recognized for educational purposes and for whom higher levels and different modes of financing are required. A whole range of school populations, however they are delineated by country authorities, according to various social, cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic, geographic, physical and mental characteristics, are the subjects of special educational attention. A new comparative study could usefully follow the precedent established in the present report to examine the general principles in this field in which policy is related to finance (1979).

 

For the positive aspects in integration, it is included that the additional resources should now be available for all students. Although the validity of normalization as a basis for integration was questioned from the start, the concept played a significant role on pressures towards integration, and continues to do so. Critics claimed that normalization did not recognize the fact that the society includes a wide range of individual differences. Moreover, it did not adequately recognize the diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that are available to people in the adult world. For the advocates of integration, however, the right to education meant the right of students with disabilities to receive an education mean. These are speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Students at mainstream schools were more likely to have higher academic achievements than those at special schools, even when developmental level was similar. Against these benefits, inclusion also brought its share of challenges. Although the concept of inclusion may have its own set of drawbacks, such disadvantages can be resolved primarily through effective training of educators.

 

Human development is crucial. It was said that no country can secure sustainable economic growth or reduce poverty without healthy, well-nourished, and well-educated people. The love for learning is so great that it should be associated with a way of life. Education helps people to be more objective in their approach to life’s problems, more analytical in trying to understand them and more aware of the consequences that can arise when handling them. Education can help lead a fuller and richer life and to be more conscious of the economic and social environment.

 

Annotated Bibliography:

 (1996). International Action against Racial Discrimination

However, in democratic countries people are accustomed to seeing their governments criticized daily in many of the morning newspapers, but when a foreign official criticizes the same government, reactions are different. People would ask whether conditions in the foreigner's country are such that he or she is entitled to complain. Diplomats, in particular, are trained to defend their countries' honor. They are always on the look-out for fear that the rules of international relations are applied unfairly to their countries' disadvantage (1996). 

 

Campus Conduct (n.d.). Race, Color or National Origin Discrimination. 20 Dec 04

Individuals are being treated unequally due to the influenced of some strong factors like religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, and even disability. Efforts towards establishing an earnest multicultural institute are being made however to address and handle this problem and it begins with initiating a self examination on one’s awareness in detecting racist forms of behaviors and attitudes. Common solutions propose to break the silence by gaining enough courage to talk it through with the kids in order to gain a better understanding of themselves as well as growing in a culturally diverse environment (Campus Conduct).

 

 (1979). A study of British Policy and the Political Impasse in India

Through contacts with the parents much has been learned by the teachers about the children, which has, in many cases, enabled them to solve problems and unexplained difficulties which they had encountered. But a great deal remains to be done. The policy is to be implemented thoroughly and completely. There are crucial areas where policy has failed to effect change in the past and where it can succeed in the future, particularly in relation to equality. Policies legitimate certain concerns, provide resources to further them, and provide a basis for evaluation and refinement ( 1979).

 

(1997) Mainstream or Special? Educating Students with Disabilities

 

These argument concerned academic achievement, the detrimental effects of labeling associated with placement outside the mainstream, the racial imbalance in special education, and recent advances in individually paced curricula which would make it possible to accommodate students with disabilities in the regular class. Most importantly, it was argued by educators that these centers are the best way of preparing students with disabilities for ultimate integration into the community as self-support adult (1997).

 

 (1996) Through Students' Eyes: Combating Racism in United States Schools.

In both urban and suburban schools, students of color experience inequality by being given a smaller amount of instructional time biased texts and curricula, harsh sanctions (suspension and detention), lowered teacher expectations, and teacher/administrator and school denial of racist actions. White students who lack sufficient understanding of racism on the other hand often accuse the victims of using their ethnicity or race as a crutch in order to get special treatment due to their laziness to do things on their own initiative. As a result, some potentially brilliant student of color represses his skills and talent out of fear of being bullied and a resentment of not being taken seriously ( 1996).

 

 (2000). Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments for African American Children.

 

During that time, African-American students were treated unfairly and unjustly by some teachers and white students (2000).

 

. (2003). Race matters: this year, the Supreme Court could dismantle affirmative action. Would it be ending an unfair practice or hurting the cause of racial equality?.

 

This affirmative action does not only help the minorities who have been subject for discrimination for so many years but also improved the educational experience of everyone in the university. One student from a university in Michigan said that she is proud for having friends who are black (2003).

 

 

 

 (2003). Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom

 

The article states that when teachers avoid the subject, and pretend that it doesn't exist as an issue, or when the issue is treated lightly, they are sending a very strong message which may be unintentional but it produces stifling results. However, when teachers find ways to address the issues surrounding race in society it has been found that children feel liberated. They begin to be more open about their questions and there is more space for them to focus on all kinds of learning (2003).

 

The Terrible Transformation, Revolution, Brotherly Love and Judgment Day (1998)

 

Many societies were founded by the blacks. The black community in Philadelphia created schools for their children because they were denied access to public schools. However, the conflict between the blacks and the whites worsened which led to the Civil War in 1861. After four years, African Americans were promised of rights of citizenship and slavery was abolished (WGBH Educational Foundation, 1998).

 

. (2003). Predicting African American Parents’ and Guardians’ Satisfaction with Teachers and Public Schools.

 

The law requires every classroom to have a highly competitive teacher likewise; the states are required to measure the students’ performance regularly. Recent reports show that the law is working well and the strategies are very effective ( 2003).

 

 (2002). African Americans’ Educational Expectations: Longitudinal Causal Models for Women and Men.

 

Aside from being a political and social issue, this issue is also economic. The economic success of young people also relies on their achievement of an academic degree (2002).

 

 U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige Delivers Remarks at the National Press Club (2004).

 

There are various opportunities offered to African-American students. The African American Cultural Program (AACP) offers experiences beyond academic pursuits. It provides training in the areas of news casting, promotions and public affairs. The Central Black Student Union (CBSU) extends help in planning and sponsoring social, educational and cultural programs for students through early events like “Cotton Club” (2004).

  (1991). The Education of African American

 

One important milestone in the African-American education was the landmark case of Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954, in which the Supreme Court unanimously overruled the “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson, holding for the first time that the de jure segregation in the public school clearly violated the principle of equal protection under the law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. The decision was then applied to mainly southern school systems ( 1991) 

Career Development: a Background Paper for Brisbane School of Distance Education

Career Development: a Background Paper for Brisbane School of Distance Education

 

INTRODUCTION

            For learning is a continuous lifetime process, individuals always want to gain knowledge of something innovative that will make them better, rational and worthy persons. To complement with the dynamic changes of the society and provide the high-end demands of daily life, every individual who thirst for knowledge of information needs superior studies in order to sustain such changes and demands. The emergence of high technology has brought changes to the society. These technological advancements have brought people especially those in the business world to utilise a strategy that would be helpful in enhancing the business value of any organization (1999). The intricacies of achieving business achievement through increased efficiency, effectiveness and competitiveness, combined with innovative applications of IT, has heightened the awareness of both IT and business managers towards more strategically oriented approaches for planning and management (1993).

While it is true that with the fast paced and unprecedented development of the workplace, every learning organisation must grow in correspondence with the changes taking place (1998;  1995;1996). It could also be deemed that careers do change. With the dynamic stages of globalization and world convergence, every person is obliged to deal with the demands of living. In order for an organisation or industry to be more competitive in the marketplace, the administration must always consider the use of a management system and strategy that would sustain the capability, strength and competitive position (2000; 2003). Industries which consider changes with their management system or any other critical aspects of their business operation are those industries which are aware of the positive benefits that these changes may bring (1998). Hence, the emergence of effective career management is vital and goes hand in hand with career development.

This paper discusses the concept of career development as applied to Brisbane School of Distance Education particularly focusing on the students’ perspective. Specifically, it argues that the career development process as well as program for students needs constant improvement and intensification through the following considerations:     

·                     improved and integrated curriculum

·                     more specialized training and orientation

·                     “theoretical teaching but practical application” policy

·                     easy access to guidance and counselling services

·                     updated sources of information for lessons and accessibility

·                     enhanced communication lines and linkages

·                     increase of student services

To fully understand the concept of career development and its offered services, a brief theoretical discussion is included. After identifying the needs for career development, implications, benefits as well as challenges are recognized and taken in hand. A concluding section collectively draws the central idea.

 

Career Development

            For the past decades, it has been figured out by experts to plan and design careers. Hence, career management and development was innovatively introduced to serve as the blueprint for success. As applied to an organisational level, it is the key to achieve goals of ensuring the skills and competencies of people for future employment and management of new work and life realities ( 1995). For organisations need people who are multitalented, effective in managing changes, and adaptive to new organisational directions, career management serves as the key for individual and organisational development.

            (2000) argued that the term “management”. The term has been traditionally used but it seemed to be problematic when applied to careers. It may entail a degree of control over career development that is unrealistic in today’s climate of unprecedented organizational change. Although the terms career development and career management are used somewhat interchangeably in career-related literature, in the present study the term “career management” is preferred as it tends to emphasize an active, purposeful approach. However, the interconnectedness of the two synonymous terms is both vital. In an organizational perspective, the application of such concepts is equivalent to the nature of the organizational success.

Career development describes the structure and longitudinal nature of career behaviour, as well as the psychological, cultural, economic, and political influences that involvement strategies might transform in order to facilitate more positive and purposeful career behaviour than would likely occur randomly (1990). Furthermore, agility, strength, precise movement and the ability to deal with continuous change are key attributes in career development (A2000).

In this case, the target of the career development program is the students. In the business setting, developing effective workforce is dependent to the ability of the human resources to grasp and understand instructions. This ability is rooted to the learning experience of the person. Thus, before embarking to the professional world, every person must be fully equipped with the needed essentials to be productive and competitive worker. The most basic starting point of every professional is his/her academic institution and the overall quality of experience acquired during the study period. The school management should always bear in mind that they are accountable for the growth and development of their students particularly in their future careers. In here, students must be given a chance to develop their personalities, abilities, and other aspects helpful in their career development, not only for the advantages that they can get for themselves but also for the organisation. One of the obligations of the an organisation, specifically the management is to be able understand that the primary goal of career development is to help employees analyze their abilities, skills, and interests to better match personnel needs for growth and development to the needs of the organisation (1997). Secondly, the company must be able to identify the factors in maintaining a successful career development program. There are three types of planning which relates to career development: Broad Life Planning, Development Planning and the Performance Planning ( 1997). The organisation should incorporate each of these into the career development program. Moreover, the management of the company should be able to identify their general obligations in the area of career development as well as their specific responsibilities to their employees and the organisation (1998).The management should also be able to identify methods for improving the harmony between the individual and the organisation in relation to the development of their career. Lastly, the management should be able to apply career development in the setting of the organisation (1996).

There are organisational activities designed to enhance the career development. In the workplace, these activities include the following: the establishment of the job posting system, the development of career resource centres, the training of managers as career counsellors, the planning, and implementing of career development workshops, human resource planning, and forecasting, utilizing performance appraisals and developing career pathing programs (1998). According to  (1981), the organisation maintains several fundamental responsibilities regarding career development. The organisation must be able to agree that that career pathing is a vital part of the organisation. Meanwhile, in a study conducted by (2003), professional growth provided support for applying the planned happenstance theory of career development to leadership development. With the presence of the aspect of continuous learning in this theory, learning in the organisation occurs.

Generally, career development is a knowledge-based procedure of managing life, learning and work over the years. It covers the provision of services from many different influences and delivery settings to assist people in gaining knowledge, acquiring skills, building attitudes and developing behaviours that help them to manage their career more effectively. Thus, in every given situation, career development varies at some extent due to the fact that each person’s environment and the many factors affecting life (e.g. family, society, school, social policy and the labour market) differ.

 

The Organisation – Brisbane School of Distance Education: the Need for Career Development

 

            Brisbane School of Distance Education aims for creating quality educational experiences for our community of diverse learners such as Distance students, Overseas students, Travelling students, Medical students, Approved students, Home Schooling students, and School based students.  

 

Preliminary Considerations

-       The school already has a centralized source of general information and standard set of policies when it comes to student curriculum and related activities.

-       It has guidance and counselling services that addresses the problems and concerns of students.

 

Significant Observations

-       The school involves a general pattern in teaching (e.g. fixed curriculum).

-       The school includes a diverse set of learners but only implements similar principles in the development of student’s personality, learning, and career.

With these considerations and observations, there is a need to create specific career development programs and services to every field of learning and expertise in Brisbane School of Distance Education. It can be done through the following methods:

1. Improved and Integrated Curriculum

In the epoch of various occurrences such as globalisation, industrialisation and technological advancement, the international marketplace including its particular areas and systems is overly affected by the processes intrinsic to these occurrences. Among the observable impacts of such emerging conditions in the professional world is competition. Competition among the various industries in every given economy is rapid and stiff. It is as if ‘survival of the fittest, extinction of the weakest’ trend. Today, as various industries are aiming for competitive advantage and sustainable development among its management and operations, there are numerous actions that are being implemented and are directed to the eventual success and growth of the company’s assets – the people. In competition, there is motivation in every business to improve and develop.

The principles of effective curriculum design that were embedded in the best examples of print-based open learning materials include a number of strategies designed to break down the physical and psychological distance between lecturers and their students. As Walker (1997) contends, education is still about creating a relationship between the teacher and their students, regardless of the medium used. These strategies include using friendly, informal language in the text and inserting information in the materials about the lecturer so that they emerge as a real person and not as some distant machine. In this way, the lecturer's enthusiasm for the content becomes evident to the students and, hopefully, begins to interest them in the material. For this reason, BSDE needs to broaden its satisfactory curriculum through improvement and integration of some other related disciplines. The constant upgrading and incorporation of various yet related fields and subjects that will eventually make its learning outcomes more competitive and practicable is the initial step in career development. A good curriculum is equivalent to competitive capability. BSDE have its REAL EDUCATIONAL OPTIONS in its curriculum areas. Initially, this is proven to be excellent since it promotes diversity among disciplines like Art, Business Education, English, Languages, Learning Teaching Technology, Senior Schooling, Math Graphics, Music, Science & HPE, and Social Science. As seen on the learning outcomes among the students, BSDE provides the necessary learning areas for learning and teaching. With this, there is a call for continuous improvement as demanded by the competition in the professional world.

2. More Specialized Training and Orientation

In line with the improved and integrated curriculum, the need for more specialized training and orientation is necessary. Driven by the competition in the professional arena, students of BSDE must be trained in the most acceptable and feasible ways. The training that is being rendered by the school must not be limited to micro setting; instead it covers a large scope of application. Bearing in mind, training must be relevant and should establish proficiency in the needed abilities for the future occupation of the student. Workshops/courses facilitated in BSDE must include, career planning, work search, communication, teambuilding, customer service, public speaking, study skills, workplace safety, leadership, recruitment and selection, self esteem and parenting. Overall, the training and orientation of BSDE students must be extensive yet effective in order to be aggressive in the professional arena.

3. “Theoretical Teaching but Practical Application” Policy

So too, exemplary open learning materials promote deep learning approaches among students. In order to move students beyond superficial approaches to learning, such as memorizing and reproducing information, effective teachers structure learning tasks that require students to think critically and creatively about information (1992). The best examples of open learning materials did not merely provide students with lecture notes, a set of readings and essay topics, but gibbeted their journey through the content with activities and exercises. These were designed to enhance their ability to evaluate the information and arguments contained in the materials and to apply their newly acquired knowledge to new problems, tasks or situations. By engaging students with the content in this way, these open learning resources were able to inject interaction into the process of distance learning. In this way, they encouraged students to extend and ultimately transform their own knowledge and skills, thereby assisting them to reach some of the deeper levels of learning outlined by  (1993).

Similar to the above discussions, this policy is seen to be needed in the career development program of BSDE. This policy is common among social and human sciences. The concepts and theories that are learned must be applied instead of just being mere concepts and theories. In here, BSDE must promote more efforts in research and development (R&D) activities as well as on-field or on-the-job experiences. The immersion of the student in the field wherein he/she is plans to work after graduation is truly helpful. Furthermore, the application of concepts and theories learned is reinforced by actual exercises that will test the extent of learning and knowledge absorption. Programs offered in BSDE must target the areas where students and other graduates work with employment agencies, job re-entry programs, government departments, colleges and universities.  Positions from these fields must be guaranteed full-time, although there are increasing numbers of contract opportunities. For instance, career development graduates can apply their knowledge, skills and abilities in roles such as career counsellor, workshop facilitator, job developer, and human resources consultant. In BSDE, graduates must be properly employed not under- or totally unemployed.

4. Easy Access to Guidance and Counselling Services

The guidance and counselling services of every educational institution is fundamental to the growth and environment on the learner. BSDE is performing well in terms of guidance and counselling. As a matter of fact, Student Support Services of the school provides information and support to parents, students, staff and families through a range of Guidance and Counselling services. Guidance Officers at Brisbane School of Distance Education operate within the school context and where necessary network with community agencies and education personnel to deliver professional and personal support. There is no problem in the BSDE guidance and counselling, however ease of access to such services must be maintained. The scope of guidance and counselling services of BSDE include the following:

·                     Appropriateness of enrolment

·                     Class placement – learning/adjustment

·                     Subject selection

·                     Special education needs

·                     Planning of student short and long term goal

Moreover, Guidance Officers display in the execution of their duties and posses the following attributes.

·                     High level teaching ability

·                     Individual and group counselling skills

·                     Advanced skills and knowledge in psycho-educational assessment and intervention

·                     Advanced knowledge and skills in career education and counselling

Again, there is no problem in the guidance and counselling service of the school but there is a need to maintain ease of access, open communication, and information dissemination that such services are ongoing and offered for the benefits of the students.

5. Updated Sources of Information for Lessons and Better Accessibility

The innovations and emerging trends in the education sectors as well as the development of new knowledge-based information in every field of study prompts learning institutions to update their archives and libraries particularly with the educational materials being used in teaching and learning. BSDE has its library but the question is: does the school management maintain the accuracy and superiority of educational materials? With the aid of IT, BSDE can deal with the demands of current and innovative resources. The presence of the Internet is the mighty element. BSDE only need to update its website and make it more user-friendly and informative.

In business, the Internet allows consumers much greater access to information, opening up the market and undermining monopolies ( 2003). The Internet enables businesses to automate many operations and create a worldwide, 24-hour/day presence at low cost (2002). In terms of education and learning, it is said that ICT integration produces many positive implications. ICT enables access to Web sites that would allow students to learn about different cultures around the world (2003). Students are also seen more motivated and interested into a subject when daily lessons are incorporated with ICT. The contribution of ICT to improvement has been basically most significant with learning and communication. The internet is one good example of how that works. As quoted from  (2003), “the internet provides the potential to deliver efficiently, and on the mass scale individualized, highly engaging learning and instructional content to almost any desktop and make information available to the teacher and student any time day and night” (). The internet is also said to provide authentic learning materials to students that are difficult to obtain in a traditional learning situation (2003). With the use of internet, many believe that learning has significantly become more flexible and content sources much more accessible (2003). Through the internet, distance learning is possible. The advantages of distance learning include the conservation of time, space, and effort for students (2002). Furthermore, it provides students more flexibility in balancing their academic lives with their personal lives ( 2002). Distance learning technologies are expanding at an extremely rapid rate. Too often, instructional designers and curriculum developers have become enamored of the latest technologies without dealing with the underlying issues of learner characteristics and needs, the influence of media upon the instructional process, equity of access to interactive delivery systems, and the roles of teacher, site facilitator, and student in the distant learning process. For BSDE, using the conveniences of the electronic media is the only way to update information sources and mode of transmission.

6. Enhanced Communication Lines and Linkages

Communication serves a number of functions for the organization (2001).  In production, communication plays its role in the direction, coordination, and control of tasks and activities.  It deals with the what, when, and how of the process. Consequently, communication serves as the pathway through which suggestions and insights that would generate change and new ideas in the system are discussed. Communication also keeps and preserves values and relationships necessary to keep the system of the organization collectively.

Effective communication is a necessity in the workplace (2002). Researchers and practitioners have long recognized communication skills are critical to job performance, career advancement, and organizational success (1989; 1986; 1987). Similarly,  (1994) suggested that communication serves four major functions within a group or organization: control, motivation, emotional expression, and information.  When employee, for instance, are required to first communicate any job-related grievance to their immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with company policies, communication is performing a control function. On the other hand, communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance. For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. Feelings of satisfaction and frustrations within the group or organization are being expressed through communication.  Thus, communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs. The benefits of teamwork are hard to measure. Additionally, the intuitive application of teamwork produces positive contributions to organizational performance. According to (1998; 2001), the perceived advantages of teamwork to the organization are the following:

-           improvement in the financial outcomes;

-           reduction of employee turnover and absenteeism;

-           enhancement in the quality of care (in health care);

-           diminution of conflict; and

-           optimal patient outcomes.

 

Lastly, the final function of communication is related to its role in facilitating decision making.  It provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decision by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices. All in all and regardless of barriers in the communication process, communication still plays a great role in good group performance (2000) especially to the operational functions present in the various organizations that operates worldwide. Thus, there is a mandatory need to improve it.

In relation to other discussions above, BSDE must enhance its communication lines and linkages. With this, the need to expand the extent of development is not far at hand. The structure of distance learning as given by BSDE gives adults the greatest possible control over the time, place and pace of education; however, it is not without problems. Loss of student due to lack of face-to-face contact with teachers and peers, potentially prohibitive startup costs, and lack of faculty support are all barriers to successful learning. Thus, there is a need to improved communication linkages.

7. Increase of Student Services

On this aspect, the increase of student services that are directed to the welfare and development of their future career is dependent on the strategic directions that BSDE upholds.

·         Student centred educational programs which utilise the 5 principles of learning and teaching for use in the distance mode.

·         Maximised involvement of all members of the school community.

·         Strong advocacy for a quality and appropriate curriculum that is responsive to a diverse student community in an ever changing society.

·         Effective communication.

·         Effective leadership and management that actively promotes school identity, its unique needs, and its place within Education Queensland.

·         A strong commitment to induction training and development of all staff, home tutors, and supervisors.

·         Optimised use of technology to facilitate program delivery.

 

Career Development by Constant Improvement and Growth through Planning, Training and Learning

 

A careful planning and scrutiny will eventually help the individual focused on the chosen area of service. Thus, career management through constant improvement and growth through planning, training and learning is important. In an interview,  (2004) of Fortify Services, he believed that: “full-on career management requires professionalism, total commitment and large reserves of enthusiasm and energy every step of the way”. He added that career management is not an innate talent but a process to be learned. It is not a ‘frivolous luxury’ but a ‘necessity’ in the workforce. Career management is, at its most fundamental level, all about survival in these increasingly uncertain times. It is about carefully building and nurturing people’s skills and reputation (2004).

In career development, chance is a big opportunity. A chance to develop the manager’s skills and capabilities determines continuous improvement. There are five attitudes that are essential to recognizing, creating, and using chance as an opportunity (2000):

1.    curiosity - which will prompt you to explore new learning opportunities;

 

2.    persistence - which means you exert extra effort despite setbacks;

 

3.    flexibility - which enables you to change attitudes and circumstances;

 

4.    optimism - which will allow you to view new opportunities as possible and attainable; and

 

5.    the willingness to take risks, which will enable you to act in the face of uncertainty.

 

These five attitudes are applicable to the overall programme of career development services to be offered among BSDE students. Because training and learning are imperative requirements, any form of activity and study can help a student to meet his or her goals. Thus, it can be said that personal and professional learning is significantly related to organisational and attitudinal outcomes. Career development improves the efficiency of the education and training system of BSDE students while supporting the interface with and the requirements of the Australian labour market. Career development plays an important part in raising the aspirations of BSDE students and supporting them to access and manage opportunities that might otherwise be denied to them.

Since BSDE students are yet to established careers in the future, career development services and programmes to be offered for them will help them to make immediate and specific career and learning choices and also lay the foundations for life-long learning and personality development. Career development competencies incorporated into the programme along with career awareness and experiential career exploration enables them to have long-term and productive affiliation to their respective companies.

 

Career Development and Work-Life Balance

Then again, students must be trained to keep balance in their work and life as a whole. With the teachings of BSDE particularly in career development and to the advantages of the career development programs, a student is expected to deal with the daily pressures and demands of the work effectively and satisfactorily. The extent of work-life balance programs depends on the personal and professional limitations. BSDE must train its students to identify priorities and this could be done through the presence of activities and exercises that will develop the necessary skill.

Career Development, Task Management and Human Resource Management

Task management is defined as the efficient and effective distribution and implementation of the policies and tasks necessary to facilitate a firm's smooth operations in dealing with its customers, employees, and management. It focuses on the careful management of the processes involved in the production and distribution of products and services (1991). The structure of tasks among the employees strengthens the organizational performance (1993). With this fact, career development is necessary in designing task structure that goes hand in hand with the standards of HRM. Also, the experiences of BSDE students can determine their applicability and appropriateness to the job at hand.

Among BSDE students, career development in terms of task management identifies the scope, structure, and other factors affecting the position. By constant planning, training and learning, students will emerge as totally competitive individuals that will serve the benefit of sustained competitive edge of the company in which they will belong – against its competitors. Task management is not only limited on the individual professional level but also to the organizational spectrum. Effective task management is related to existing HR functions and practices inherent in the upper management. In connection to the role of human resource management, (1994) described a technique to help HR specialists, line managers and interested employees identify previously uncharted career paths for internal transfers using Job Trees. Also, they combined some of the traditional skill identifications with organisational characteristics, work flow patterns, and existing internal and external relationships representing how the organization actually operates. The need for career development in task management is directly associated with the roles and responsibilities of the Target managers in forthcoming organisational operations and transactions. With this, it is not only evident that learning is taking place but also experiential professional development is up.

 

Implications, Benefits and Challenges

The issues of career mobility and employment relationship cannot be adequately addressed without systematic incorporation of organisations. Given the longstanding theoretical and practical interests in markets and economic development (1989; 1995; 1992), important questions related to the impact of career development on organisational practices (i.e. hiring, promotion, and compensation) have yet to receive their share of attention. However, career development effects on every organizational environment are undeniably useful.

Aside from the aforementioned benefits and implications of the career development program for BDSE, generally, one persuasive reason on why organizations offer career development is that the process serves as a means to develop the best employees for the job to sustain corporate competitive advantage. Developing the best person to occupy a position in a company means higher chances of efficiency. Retaining company’s best work assets is sustaining the growing competitive edge of the organisation. Hence, by doing such career development programs, productivity and progression is ensured. Another reason why organizations engage in career management is productivity. The quality of the workforce predefines the possible outputs of the organisation. A weak workforce means poor labour while a strong workforce is more. Productivity is the measurement of organizational growth. By utilizing career management systems, the productivity of the organisation is achievable.  (1994) stated that productivity may come from a dedicated and well-motivated workforce. Through motivation, it can be assumed as the reason or the force behind why a person does well in work. Sometimes, it is also a means to make the person perform better and more efficient.

Aside from organizational results, career development may also help individuals to balance their work and family life, and link their personal career goals to the emerging needs of their employer, industry, or community (1995;1997). This is evident when the student is already working. By means of balancing work and life of employees, the contributions in the progression of the organisation is focused and defined. Since market-dependent firms like multinational and transnational companies have more at stake in maintaining a high level of employee competence, these BSDE and its students should be more likely than others to adapt effective career management processes in favour of human capital. In order for an organisation to take advantage on the effects of career management, career managers and administration should equip people to benchmark their skills, anticipate upcoming skill demands, and commit to continuous learning ( 1997; 1995;  1997). These are the biggest challenges affecting career development. During these rapid and competitive changing times, organizations need to help each other to facilitate the achievement of goals and objectives. Organizations must identify specific skills and competencies that will maximize the company’s growth. Balance is not so much a career management variable as it is a life management variable that permits one to achieve career success while remaining satisfied. This explanation would support  (1999) call for workers of the future to take time to recharge. However, the idea that every employee possesses a succinct picture of the goals and objectives s/he wants to achieve is finite.

The continuing public discussion on the quality of education has nearly overlooked adult readers and learners (2002; 2003). With the advent of the Information Age comes the ever increasing passion of humans for learning. More and more adults from various economic and cultural orientations, already in the workplace, and with families are seeking to educate themselves to keep up their careers (1999). Nowadays, there exists a wide array of options available for learners to do this. They higher education, or their company’s Internet. The choice is entirely in the hands of learners’ themselves. The ways that they seek to educate and re-educate themselves to stay abreast with current trends in their jobs is Distance Learning.

 

 

 

CONCLUSION

            Education as the proponent of social change is undeniably evident among the aforementioned theory. With the concept of globalization that is extremely influential to the present times, social changes brought about by distance learning and education as a whole is observable. The traditional applications and approaches towards things are now modernized and create innovative results that may affect the former in a positive or negative way.

The need for career development services is founded in evidence that the development of an individual’s career provides a foundation for that person’s feeling of self-worth and fulfilment. In relation to this case, career development among BSDE student is not far to realized provided that the above discussion are considered, evaluated, and applied.

Career development programs for Brisbane School of Distance Education are argued to be essential yet it needs constant improvement and intensification through the following considerations:  

·                     improved and integrated curriculum

·                     more specialized training and orientation

·                     “theoretical teaching but practical application” policy

·                     easy access to guidance and counselling services

·                     updated sources of information for lessons and accessibility

·                     enhanced communication lines and linkages

·                     increase of student services

Because constant development and growth through planning, training and learning is crucial; BSDE teaches students how to maintain balance between work and life; and it defines the bulk of responsibility falling under a strict implementation of task management and HRM. The implications and benefits of career development among BSDE students and the whole school management and personnel as well are: the process serves as a means to develop and retain the best people for the job to sustain competitive advantage, organisational and employee productivity, and balance of work and family life and link to their personal career goals to the emerging needs of their employer, industry, or community. The bottom line is – the effectiveness of the career development process in making career choices and decisions, managing the organizational and boundless careers, and taking control of one’s personal development is dependent to the predetermined objectives of an individual and the organisation he/she wanted to penetrate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Comparative Analysis of High School Education in US and UK

Comparative Analysis of High School Education in US and UK

 

This paper is aimed to present a comparison of the high school education between the United States and the United Kingdom. One high school was chosen from each country to illustrate the difference in their educational system in terms of curriculum, students and the faculty members.

Introduction

The educational system in the two high schools cited varies in terms of the curriculum offered to the students. The core subjects are almost similar which composes of Math, Science, English and Physical Education. Both High Schools offer additional courses and electives that the students may choose from. Similarly, these two high schools cater to students on grades 9-12 and ages 12-16. The number of the faculty members or teaching staff is fair enough with the number of the students. Both of these high schools acknowledge the relevance of having competent educators as a key element in the improvement of the students. The level of competence is determined by the ratings from the Department of Education in the country which they belong.

I. Florida State High School in U.S

Secondary schools in the United States consists of either three year or four year programs. These are called the junior high school and senior high school. The 12 years of primary and secondary education are called the twelfth grade (2004).

Florida High school was established in 1851 and started as a preparatory department for aspiring teachers in the Florida State University. The first senior class graduated in 1960 with only of 11 students. In 2005, 136 students received their diplomas and became members of the 2005 Florida High Graduating class. Florida high has been established as one of the K-12 public school district in the state of Florida. It is a developmental research school that has received “A” ratings from the Department of Education for the past 5 years ( 2007).

The Florida State University School comprises of 106 K-12 faculty members.  Forty one of them are members of the High School Faculty with 1 guidance counselor, 1 media specialist and 1 reading coach. The high school also consisted six of the eleven National board Certified faculty members. It is consisted of 611 students. The school year is composed of nine week grading periods with two grading periods per semester. Each class last for 50 minutes with seven periods per week and a total of 180 days per school year.

In terms of the curriculum, the core subjects include English, Math, Science, Social Studies, Physical Education, Life Management, Arts and Electives. Advanced Placement Courses that are offered in European History, American History, World History, Government and Economics, English Literature, Calculus, Statistics, Latin, Biology, Arts (Drawing), Art, (2D Design).The students who are enrolled in AP courses are required to take and pass the AP exam. Teachers of AP courses on the other hand are trained by the College Board Consultants. Vocational Education Courses offers Culinary Arts, Early Childhood and Web Design. On the other hand, Honor Courses are offered in all major disciplines while dual enrollment courses are accessible to all students on the campus of Florida State University (2007).

II. Lynn Grove VA High School in UK

In the United Kingdom, formal education starts at the age of 5 with the completion of 13 full years of education before college education. Students begin their secondary education upon completion of the elementary and junior education. The secondary education lasts for seven years wherein students undergo examinations set by the school. The results will determine the subjects they will choose to study for the General Certificate Education. This examination is taken as a two year preparation programme before entering the university (2005).

Lynn grove is an excellent school in comparison with to other schools with the same proportion of students. The general standard of teaching and support provided for the pupils is the main focus of the school. The students are cared for very well with the strong emphasis in improving and helping them reach their best standards. It has a technology college and investors in people status and gained a Schools Curriculum Award.  The school comprises of 900 pupils with 65 teaching staff and 30 ancillary staff. It is a voluntary comprehensive school for boys aged 12 to 16. The ratio of qualified teachers is one per 17 students (2007).

Aside from the core subjects which all students take, they are allowed to choose three additional subjects from the following: Art, Business Education Drama, French, Applied French with Business, Applied French with Leisure and Tourism, German, Geography, Health and Social Care, History, Hospitality, Travel and Tourism, AS Mathematics, Media Studies, Music or Physical Education. The use of ICT for curriculum enrichment includes the development of virtual learning environment (2007).

Comparative Analysis

 

These two high schools differ in terms of the core subjects they offer. Primarily, they are similar in offering core subjects such as English, Math, Science and Physical Education. It can be concluded that some areas are not prioritized by the other mainly because of the specific guidelines provided for by the Education Department in the country for which these high schools belong.

The ratio of the faculty in comparison with the number of students is fair enough in both high schools. For the Florida High School there are 41 faculty members that teach 611 students. Whereas the Lynn Grove High School has 65 teaching staffs for its 900 students. This is an indication that both high schools in these two different countries are provided for with the appropriate number of faculty for the students, With regard to the age of the students, both high schools cater to boys and girls with ages 12-16. The secondary education comprises of grades 8-12.

Generally, the high school education system in both countries is almost the same. The secondary education is until the twelfth grade. In terms of the curriculum, the subjects offered are similar and other areas are closely related. Additional courses are also offered to the students as a preparatory programme for entering college.

Communication, Language and Literacy Development

 

Communication, Language and Literacy Development

 

Foundation Stage

            The foundation Stage is the first stage of the National Curriculum that focuses on the distinct needs of children aged three and four in nursery and reception classes. It is a broad and purposeful curriculum, delivered through planned play activities to help ensure all children have the opportunity to reach their full potential and experience the best possible start to their education. The curriculum promotes children’s skills, knowledge and understanding across a range of areas including literacy, math, creativity and physical development. Participation also enables children to develop their social skills ().

            The Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage was distributed in May 2000 to all schools with nursery and reception classes and to early years settings receiving nursery education grant funding. This guidance sets out six areas of learning which from the basis of the foundation stage curriculum. These are:

1. Personal, social and emotional development

2. Communication, Language and Literacy

3. Mathematical development

4. Knowledge and understanding of the world

5. Physical development

6. Creative development

 

Each area of learning has a set of related early learning goals. Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage is intended to help practitioners plan to meet the diverse needs of all children so that most will achieve and some, where appropriate, will go beyond the early learning goals by the end of the foundation stage. The Education Act 2002 extended the National Curriculum to include the foundation stage. The six areas of learning became statutory, and the Act specified that there should be early learning goals for each of the areas. A national consultation on the content of the early learning goals as set out in Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage was carried out in autumn 2002.  Following this consultation the early learning goals, and use of the Curriculum guidance as a guide, became statutory in March 2002. The Act also established a single national assessment system for the foundation stage, replacing baseline assessment schemes. The Foundation stage profile was introduced into schools and settings in 2002-3. The Foundation stage profile has 13 summary scales covering the six areas of learning, which need to be completed for each child receiving government-funded education by the end of his or her time in the foundation stage.

Source: www.qca.org.uk

Area for Development: Communication, Language and Literacy

            Communication, language and literacy depend on learning and being competent is a number of key skills, together with having the confidence, opportunity, encouragement, support and disposition to use them. This area of learning includes communication, speaking and listening in different situations and for different purposes, being read a wide range of books and reading simple texts and writing for a variety of purposes. To give all children the best opportunities for effective development and learning in communication, language and literacy, practitioners should give particular attention to:

1. Providing opportunities for children to communicate thoughts, ideas and feelings and build up relationships with adults and each other

2. Incorporating communication, language and literacy development in planned activities in each area of learning

3. Giving opportunities to share and enjoy a wide range of rhymes. Music, songs, poetry, stories and non-fiction books

4. Giving opportunities for linking language with physical movement in action songs and rhymes, role-play and practical experiences such as cookery and gardening

5. Planning an environment that reflects the importance of language through signs, notices and books

6. Providing opportunities for children to see adults writing and for children to experiment with writing for themselves through making marks, personal writing symbols and conventional script

7. Early identification of and response to any particular difficulties in children’s language development

8. Close teamwork between , where appropriate, bilingual workers, speech therapists and practitioners.

 

Development Focus: Reading

 

How do Children Learn to Read?

            Reading is a process that begins as soon as children can focus on print. The first print to which children are exposed is environmental print and many would argue that it plays as large a part in learning to read as the reading of books they are given at the early stages of reading. At home children will look at cereal packets and other packaging and point to the logos that identify them. At this stage children are dealing with the pattern of the whole word; decoding comes later. As children become more aware of the printed word they show an interest in detail and will start looking at and commenting on letters of the alphabet. Frequently the first one is the initial letter of their name. Around the same time many children start to notice the rhymes in songs or nursery rhymes.

The value of rhyming language is stressed by many as it has been found that texts that incorporate rhyme and recurrent tunes and contain language that is rhythmic and memorable make it easier for children to predict and anticipate the rest of the verse.  (1990) drew attention to the importance of offering young children opportunities for engaging in songs, rhymes and alliteration. They found that chanting and singing and playing with language gave children a sensitivity to rhyme that provided the basis for the development of phonological awareness and was strongly related to later success in reading.

 

 

Methods of teaching Reading and Problems

            There are three main methods of teaching reading that are used in primary schools today, although many use a mixture of methods appropriate to the needs of the child. Current commercial reading schemes, used in the majority of schools, offer children the opportunity to learn the necessary strategies to become fluent readers.

1. Look and Say Method

            This method relies on children learning to recognise individual words, which they are expected to learn before they are given their first book. Proponents of this approach argue that children will meet with instant success, as they will already know the vocabulary of the book. The problem with this approach are: children with poor visual memories finds this method difficult, there is a big tendency to bore the children with repetition, books with very limited vocabulary can sound very dull, and children are not being helped to develop strategies to deal with words they have not met.

2. Phonic Method

            This method concentrates on sounds and letters. Children are introduced to single sounds at the beginning of words, to clusters, to digraphs, to the last letters in words. These are practiced in a variety of ways. The problems with these methods are relationship between sounds and letters is not always straightforward, the children’s ability to distinguish between sounds develops at different times, children with poor auditory discrimination find this method difficult, children with nasal or ear infections may have difficulties and regional variations can lead to confusion.

3. Apprenticeship Method

            This method builds on the child's experience of print and on the knowledge of stories, language that children bring with them to school The emphasis is upon enjoying books and discussing them with the teacher. The children regularly read a book alongside the teacher until they feel ready to take over on their own. Critics of the method say that it is totally unstructured and does not guide the children appropriately. In reality, the schools that use this method rather than reading schemes have a planned programme that ensures that children are exposed to the full range of strategies required for learning to read.

 

Possible Solution

Book Room

            Supporting young children with their development as readers should be an exciting prospect for all those working with children in the early years. Building on the knowledge of reading that they bring with them, sharing well-loved favorite texts, introducing and discussing new authors and titles, and, most of all, watching the children's excitement grow as the world of the reader opens up to them (Bromley 2003, p.178). Books play an important role in developing the reading ability of the children during the foundation stage. In order to help the children to develop an interest in books and reading it is important to create an attractive book room where children and adults can enjoy books together. The teacher’s responsibility includes:

1. Fostering a desire to read

2. Story book reading in the classroom, including examples of good literature

3. Facilitating shared reading in the classroom – reading to and by the teacher

4. Developing the children’s interest in books and reading.

What does the Practitioner need to do?

1. Find opportunities to tell and read stories to children using props and actions

2. Talk to children about characters and their feelings about the story and encourage discussion and comparison with people from their own experience. Refer to the characters in books during activities

3. Create an attractive book area where children and adults can enjoy books together

4. Take children to the local library and/or encourage the librarian to visit the setting

5. Discuss with children the characters in the books being read. Encourage them to predict outcomes to think of alternative endings and to compare plots with their own experience.

6. Talk about books using appropriate vocabulary

7. Read stories that the children already know, pausing at intervals to encourage them to read the next word.

 

 

 

Key Strategies

Books as Children’s Friends

            According to  (2003), children need friends that they can interact with time and time again, they need to share the good times and the bad. Books described as free range, that is, high quality, multi-layered texts provide such opportunities. One of the important parts of friendship is the shared conversations that can exist. With your friends you laugh, cry and build a collection of joint memories, whilst all the time finding out more about yourself. Children's literature can provide such experiences. Children need friends that will help them learn, without fear of failure and with the knowledge that risk taking is a worthwhile activity (). Some books invite rereading because they offer opportunities to see the familiar and unfamiliar juxtaposition in such a way as to make you want to read them again and again. Just like visiting an old friend, but playing a new game.

Books as Toys

            Playful books include bath and cloth books as well as some new, even, ore adventurous, forms that blur the boundaries between book and toy. Some toy books tell stories and some reach out into the real world objects sounds and activities. The touch and feel books allow young children to feel the wool of a sheep, run their fingers over a fish scale and experience the cool, smoothness of a plastic boot. Some books come in a package which includes a soft toy of one of the characters or some puppets to help retell the story or experience. There are books with pop-up pictures that bring a smile every time they are shown to a young child and others where you pull cardboard levers to reveal a hidden object. Then there are interactive books which invite participation. If toy books are associated with enjoyment and being close to parents and caregivers, they play a part in making early encounters with books positive (2003).

Big Books

            The theory behind using Big Books is well documented.  (1979), for example, working in New Zealand in the 1970s, looked at children who were already reading when they came to school, to find out what had made them successful. Many of the children had favorite stories that were read to them repeatedly. Gradually, the children were able to take on more of the reading for themselves, first by remembering the text and eventually being able to match words and phrases to the known text. Big Books were devised as a way of making stories available to a wider audience. Holdaway noted that all children were able to be successful at their own level, with this approach. Large groups were able to be involved in the shared reading of a familiar text. They provide a shared context for discussion and make it easy for all the children in a class to focus on the chosen text.

Group Reading

            Big Books are not the only way in which children can be encouraged to play with their reading! Group reading around multiple copies of the same text provides similar opportunities, if the right atmosphere for learning and risk taking is created (2003). The teacher may choose a popular story as a subject for group reading. During the session, the children listen to the story read loud first, joining in if they wish. Then the children are allowed to ask questions about each of the pages of the book, either to each other or to the adult present.

Management

            Managing an early year setting requires effective communication skills with parents, children and staff. It also necessitates communicating with a variety of outside agencies such as social services, psychologists, play therapists, health visitors, doctors, social workers, medical consultants and the police to name but a few. According to (1996), the role of the manager in an early years setting is to

1. Ensure that the children are given a quality of service of care

2. Support and supervise the staff who deliver this service

3. Consult and respect wishes of the children’s parents or carers

4. Provide adequate resources in the nursery to enable the service to function

5. Set up a rich and stimulating environment in which the service can be delivered

6. Undertake external liaison and fulfill an ambassadorial function

7. Be a role model for the staff and children

Style of Management

            The style of management in the establishment is democratic. This form of decision making involves everyone in the establishment and can result is a vote consensus of opinion. It is a useful way of making decisions as it means that everyone is ‘signed up’ to the outcome and therefore has responsibility for implementation of the decision.

Leadership

            The Motivator style of leadership best suits early years establishments. One of the driving forces of early years workers is the need to motivate the children in their care to develop and learn. Leadership involves influencing the behaviour of others, supervision of staff, planning and implementing change and administering the day-to-day service of the establishment. Although leadership and management complement each other, it is leadership that is responsible for inspiring staff and initiating change.

Effective Management Team

1 Chairman—the team co-ordinator who is disciplined, focused and balanced. Talks and listens well, is a good judge of people and things and works through others. 

 2 Shaper—this is the task leader, who in the absence of the Chairman would leap into the role even though perhaps not doing it well! Strengths lie in the Shaper's drive and passion for the task, but this person can be over sensitive, irritable and impatient. The Shaper is needed to spur the team into action. 

 3 Plant—this person is the source of original ideas and proposals and is often the most intelligent and imaginative member of the team. The Plant may be careless in details and may resent criticism. 

 4 Monitor-Evaluator—this team member is analytical and has the ability to dissect ideas and see the flaws in arguments. Often less involved with other team members but a good quality checker. 

 5 Resource-Investigator—this is a popular team member, being extrovert, sociable and relaxed. Able to bring in new contacts, ideas and developments, the Resource-Investigator is the salesperson, diplomat or liaison officer. 

 6 Company Worker—this member is the practical organizer who turns ideas into manageable tasks. Methodical, trustworthy and efficient, schedules and charts are the Company Worker's thing. 

 7 Team Worker—this member holds the team together by being supportive to others, listening and encouraging. The Team Worker is likeable and uncompetitive. 

8 Finisher—without the Finisher the team may never meet its deadlines. This person checks detail, worries about schedules and chivvies the others with a sense of urgency (1981).

Legislations

1. Children Act 1989

            The Children Act 1989 was a major piece of legislation, which not only brought together existing pieces of legislation but also formulated them into a cohesive whole. The Act ensured that the welfare of the child was paramount and allowed children's opinions to be taken into account. The quality of children's care was taken into consideration by the Act.

 

2. Human Rights Act 1998

Article 2 Non-Discrimination

States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind irrespective of the child's or his or her parents' or legal guardians' race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status. The Children Act 1989 clearly states that 'child care provision must take into account the religious, racial, cultural and linguistic needs of the child'. This means that all early years workers must take into account these aspects of the child when planning meals and activities, and in their dealings with parents/carers. Not to do so would constitute discrimination against a particular family, child or group of children. The UK is a pluralistic society and as such, its members should be aware of and respect each other regardless of differences in race, religion, culture, ability, class and other characteristics. Unfortunately, we are often aware that such tolerance and respect does not always exist in our society and there is bias among people and within institutions.

 

 

 

 

My View on Primary School Science

            Education in Australia, regulated by the individual state governments, follows three-tier model as Primary education (Primary Schools), Secondary education (Secondary Schools/High Schools) and Tertiary education (Universities and TAFE [Technical and Further Education] Colleges). Education is compulsory at an age designated by legislation. The academic year in Australia varies between states and institutions. Generally, it runs from late January until mid-December for primary and secondary schools and TAFE colleges. For universities, it starts from late February until mid-November (Education in Australia).

            The major goals of primary education are achieving basic literacy and numeracy amongst all pupils. This level of education focuses on establishing foundations in science, geography, history and other social sciences. Typically, the pupils are placed in a class with one teacher who will be basically responsible for their education and welfare for a school year. Continuity with a single teacher and opportunity to build a close relationship are the most notable feature of the primary education system.

            As of 2006, there is a total of 3.3 million (17% of total population) enrolled pupils in primary schools. The normal age of pupils enrolled is between ages 6-7 to 12-13 years. In between these school years, various areas and the methods used to teach them are relatively broad. Science, for example, is narrowed into two categories such as natural sciences and social sciences. Knowledge, application, researches, observations and so on encompasses these various areas of science. The teacher shall prepare for teaching methodologies and learning technologies and productivity tools in between (Education in Australia).

            To wit, the goal of science impacts on society and individuals. It is to produce useful models of reality. As a useful tool and a growing body of understanding, one can distinguish more effectively with surroundings to better adapt and evolve individual as a social whole as well as independently. Thus saying, through science we can now teach and learn science on a more adaptive, responsive and interactive ways. The teaching methodologies which are incorporated in class rooms are delivered by science developments such as on-line teachings and software-activated modules and lectures.

            We cannot question the usefulness of computers and perhaps, the Internet, in school works but many people, specifically parents, argued about the educational value of Internet. Indeed, e-porns, dangerous and aggressive racist messages, dishonest and immoral information, and harmful advertising are dominating the Internet society (2004). Still, students as well as parents believe that the Internet is the best learning tool ever introduced.

            Due to technology upgrades, schools including primaries are prompt to go wireless. More schools are adopting one-to-one laptop computer choices (2006).  “Computer software is helping students to improve their reading kills and new video games are helping kids concentrate better (2006, 2007). Cyber swapping and electronic textbooks are also becoming more popular among teachers and students. As a cost-effective alternative, the access of data improves student achievement. Virginian teachers are learning how to get their students involve and excited about math and science by building robots and playing with high-tech toys (2007). Through podcasting, students are getting more engage in conversations about what they are learning in schools. Easy teaching cliparts and classroom management software are also available online for the teachers. In addition, a primary school science website is established in the United Kingdom. It serves as an on-line learning site in lesson plan- and worksheet-making.

            These are the approaches in American and European primary schools. However, practitioners are concern about the science performance of Australian primary school students ( 2001). “Australian science mentors appear to be the key factor in enhancing science teaching and eventually implementing a science education reform”, said . The Australian science community is calling for a new approach.

            Mentor’s practices are in need to be remodelled.  Understanding own practices (1990) and developing knowledge, skills and self-efficacy (1981) can enhanced teachers’ self-confidence. A developed self-confidence can deliver well-planned and modelled science lessons.

            To enable the transfer of knowledge from teachers to learners, pedagogical knowledge is the key. It differs from one subject area to another (1998). Lack of this knowledge can create relationship problems between mentoring how to teach primary science and the mentor’s skills. Thus, modelling teaching practices allow a visual, more effective teaching.

            Personal attributes, system requirements, pedagogical knowledge, modelling and feedback and practices are the five factors for mentoring. “Modelling” practices that are to be poured over to the mentees, which are the primary school science teachers, includes:

ü  Enthusiasm when teaching science

ü  Modelling effective science teaching practices

ü  Demonstrate a rapport

ü  Demonstrate well-designed science lessons

ü  Demonstrate hands-on lessons

ü  Effective classroom management demonstrations

ü  Use science languages

            Whether in Europe, America or Australia, teaching primary school science is tough and broad. The maximum utilization of various science materials and resources must be a priority. Internet provides a great tool and influence to teaching and learning not only in primary school but also in whole education system worldwide. Science, as broad as it can get, can be narrowed and be detailed to primary students thinking and adapting abilities. Its consistency with the current educational system is a requirement though. Personally, the role of Internet and primary school science will not hinder the capabilities of the educational officials and administrants. Perhaps, it can be a strength wherein they can design new approaches in teaching science to primary schools. Furthermore, tech-savvy students can engage to participate more and communicate their needs and concerns to the education officials.

            Enthusiasm, effective science teaching practices, rapport, well-designed science lessons, hands-on lessons, classroom management and the use of science language while teaching contribute positively to learning processes of students specifically those in primary level whether it passes from the mentor to the mentees or the teachers to the learners. A well-established foundation for science and other subjects is achieved at the primary level of education and continuity must evolve between the pupils, teachers and technology.

            The primary school science, as it enters the modern times, must keep pace with the ever-changing environment. Otherwise, obsolesce might enter the picture. We can take advantage of such developments as long as it meant to not sacrificing the goals of primary school science and goal of science in general which is basic literacy and application. Through technology, which is a product of science and technology, teaching and learning science in primary level proves to be very beneficial and providential for pupils, parents and teachers.

            Teaching primary science must be child active and child focused. It should develop both the manipulative and mental activities of the pupils. In addition, the primary science must concentrate on an aspect child experiences into which the child can display an interest ( 2003). With this, all the necessary elements of classroom learning must be properly incorporated from teaching methods, attitudes of the teacher, assessment of science learnings and etc.

            Towards science learning, constructivists approach is relatively being evident. Therefore, learning proves to be active rather than a passive process and it places the child at the center of the learning process. The children’s alternative frameworks and existing knowledge are identified by the teacher (2003). Quite simply, it is a teacher’s duty to specifically translate such knowledge to become more scientific taking in regards of the different frameworks or perceptions of each student.

            Being scientific means exploring science issues that interests them or to apply science knowledge in designing things and/or finding ways to solve everyday life problems (2004).

            More practically, primary science teaching coordinates the hands-on and minds-on approaches. The support on the pupils who spent little or no time planning and interpreting their findings must be required to make sense of a concept by relating it to their own experiences (2003). In connection, a variety of methods must be used since pupils demonstrate their abilities differently (2004). What is more important is their participation while inside the classroom.    

            The role of the primary school teachers are haunted by different problems. These are insufficient scientific knowledge background and their lack of confidence in teaching science. The teaching process which involves scientific concepts (2004) purports through the teachers’ importance. Their knowledge and teaching skills must lead to the pupil’s broader understanding. Remodelling and retraining of the current primary teachers must be also a priority along with revisiting the teaching practices.

            The teacher’s dialogue must be effective and must be carried-out collaboratively. The pupil’s activities such as inquiry, investigation and problem-solving bring about understanding of scientific concepts (2003). Thus, it must be delivered appropriate and constructively.   

            The children’s interest and attitude towards science is also crucial for effective learning. Particularly, confidence in dealing with curiosity and methodical inquiry must be develop. The enjoyment of science stemmed from the primary school (2003). However, as the child develops positive attitudes on other subjects, their interest in science diminishes.

            There are so many reasons why a primary student loses interest in science. These may include the transition between primary and post-primary schooling ( 2003). In between these years, the authority must be carefully guarded and think of ways of the pupils can retain their interest for the subject. We can start by inflicting the importance of studying science and acknowledge the importance of the subject in everyday life.

            Other reasons: the content-driven nature of the science curriculum, the perceived difficulty of school science and ineffective science teaching (2003). Among the three, the perception of the pupils regarding science can be altered at least through making them understand the value of learning science and its long-term effects.

            Further, the ineffective science teaching is changeable. There are so many things to consider such as the availability of resources for demonstration and the pupils’ ‘how we see’ concept. The primary teachers are somewhat pressured meeting the literacy and numeracy benchmarks and preparing their students for the examinations.

            Regarding the curriculum, educational authorities should capitalize on flexibility of the primary curriculum (2003). Primary science curriculum shall deal with longer-term experiments. Experiments are fun and it encourages the mind to think. With this, teachers can make science more enjoyable though self- discovery of the things around.

            More practically, teaching and learning science teaches us to be more practical and experimental. More than just being a ‘body of knowledge’, the application and importance of science in our daily lives is incontestable. Whether to use different teaching methods in demonstration, using science language in teaching science, being enthusiastic while teaching, there are so many factors why science must be taught and learned.

            As such, primary science teaching and learning deals with three actors: the teachers, the pupils and the educational system authority. The initiative must be played by the teachers in communicating their needs to the schools administrators. The results of collaboration between the two must be centered to the effective learning and broader understanding of the pupils.

            In such a way that the conceptual development of the pupils will not be suffered, the elements of effective teaching and learning must work side-by-side to achieve the goals of primary science as: developing scientific process skills, fostering the acquisition of concepts and developing particular attitudes (2003).     

 

Revitalizing the education for poor performance to good

Introduction

            Education is freedom. Education should be available to all. Education is life because an unexamined life is worthless. No matter how many quotations that tells the same advocacies is useless if it will not leave an impact in the society.

            There are many programs formulated and methods invented just to satisfy the hunger for education. These programs answer the undying problems with regards to education.  Although there are available contributors in gaining effectiveness in the education, it is obviously remained poor and needed another push to make the education performance acceptable.

Revitalizing Education

            Making the educational hours worthwhile is still a problem faced by common teachers. Professors, teachers, educators, or tutors need to establish a rapport and connect with their students. And because of this connection, the communication is introduced and uses to pass the information to the students.

            Aside from communicating problems, the lack of interest in a students’ perspective may result for a poor performance. The lack of school facilities such as classroom, laboratory, school textbooks, and valuable teachers are some contributors of poor education performance. The revolving issues in the society also gave a negative impact in the education and these issues arises from the early sexual awareness, financial or economic problems inside the household, and the competition of education among the basic needs, such as food, which is very evident in the depressed area.

            These education hindrances are so broad, but still many research tries to answer the evolving factors that affects the poor education performance. But inside the classroom, the continuous innovation and battle to reach the satisfactory stage of education already started. The aim to make the poor education performance change into good begins with the introduction of different proposed programs, pedagogy, and teaching tools. But the educators, who are the medium of learning, must remind themselves about the importance of the programs and hoe it will affect the learning process.

The adaptation of the educational programs should be keep and make strive to make it into reality. The organization of teaching based on problem-solving and coherence between theory and practice; renewal of teaching methods and practices;  incorporation of new information and communication technologies into education; transmission of the fundamental values of society; the teaching of science and technology; problems of education in emergency situations, and for the benefit of excluded populations; and relationship between culture and education.

The extensive research in field of education should never stop. Therefore, investigating the policies to be adopted ensures an effective contribution to research on the development of education; successful initiatives in the area of research and innovation; development of human resources and the motivation of researchers. Of course, the research process should be properly financed and the priorities are focused in terms of the contribution of research to the development of education: poverty reduction, impact of HIV/AIDS and other issues, improved efficiency and quality, and the impact of technologies on the results of education.

The importance of the educators is part of the education revolution toward effectiveness and good outcome. For this reason, the development of national policies in the field of teacher training is included. The promotion of a teaching system centered on the student; development of the qualities of initiative and autonomy; encouragement of a team spirit. Educators or teachers should eventually foster the interest in research and introducing to the students the use of available resources to acquire self-training capacities.

Teachers should also develop the capacity to produce teaching tools; acquire the use of new information and communication technologies; and practice of inter-disciplinarily. The training of teachers should be in a national action and promulgate up to the student teachers, for they are the new batch of educators.

Education is freedom; therefore it should be available to all. The children or students that had a disability are entitled to receive the education. There should no be hindrance in aiming the purpose of education. According to one educational program that foreseeing the same consideration, “no one should be left behind”.

The group of students also includes the learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, and behavioral disorder. In this sense, the importance of parenthood gives a contributing factor in building the self-confidence and trust among the children. The joining force of the educators and the parents is a powerful tool to create a difference in the education process.

Conclusion

            The aim to make a education difference is visibly under renovation. The fundamentals of education should stay and these fundamentals include the childhood learning where the child first receives his/her education in the hands of their beloved mother. The early education starts with a single line until developed into a circle.

            The education innovation awareness is good when it is properly used and deployed in the educational grounds. It so happen that the duty of the educators is the busiest work but it is worthwhile when the educators realized that the bridge he/she built for their students serves as an inspiration for their students. 

 

Basics of Educational Research

Educational Research

I.              Introduction

Most private and public schools rely on standardized tests for assessing students’ performance. These formal and norm referenced groups tests are used to compare students with other children who have taken the same test. They provide feedback from district administrators on the overall success of educational programs. Because of this, literacy education and assessment programs become the major concerns for educational professionals. The literacy and numeracy rates acquired from test programs are regarded as important features of the educational, economic and social status of communities. These rates are taken as indicators of educational success, economic potential and well being.

Assessment and testing programs come not only in a range of forms but also with different purposes and underlying philosophies. The first concern thus is to consider the purpose of the testing program. The compulsory testing program though does not have a clear purpose statement whether it should support learning or offer detailed feedback to the teacher and the students. What appears is that it is used for monitoring or accountability purposes since incentives are rewarded to high performing schools.

It can be argued that the primary purpose of the test program is to support the teaching/learning process. But government, taxpayers and parents also want to know how the education system and the individual schools are performing. Because of this, the results of the test programs are made available to the local media. Assessments carried out are likely to be more superficial because of the need to be quick and manageable and the need to be reliable than to support learning. The problem that the schools confront is that the tests designed for the purposes other than to support learning – the huge quantities of multiple choice in standardized tests – have had unwanted and negative effects on teaching and the curriculum (1994).

Assessment and testing programs are important part of education and whenever possible they must be the types that are suitable to use for the enhancement of good quality learning. This is not to say that the traditional test and examinations do not have the role in assessing the learning of children but what is needed is to design the appropriate programmes that will have a positive impact in the true learning of children.

This evaluation will focus on answering the following research questions.

• For what purpose should the test program be used?
• Does the standardized test program adequately measure student achievement and school achievement?
• How reliable are the results of the test program?

II.            Ethical Issues

The major ethical concern is about the appropriate and ethical test preparation. The aim of the testing program is to identify if there is genuine improvement of the students’ ability and skills in mathematics. The danger is that teaching too directly towards the test items from previous or old exam papers will narrowly enhanced performance and lowers the validity of the inference. The preservation of the integrity of the inference is the primary concern of the psychometric-cians but it matters less to school systems or teachers that are trying to survive in the political world demanding higher scores (1994).

The stakes of the tests results can be high for the educators especially since the aggregated student results reflect the individual teachers’ performance or the overall level of educational quality at the given school. Specific rewards for the school are tied to the students’ performance and because of these factors, the temptation to cheat and the reality of its occurrence cannot be ignored (1999). Aside from this there are several unethical and inappropriate practices that may occur such as the following:

• Preparation activities that undermine the reliability and the validity of inferences drawn from the assessment results
• Practices that result solely in the intention to raise scores or performance levels on specific assessment instruments without simultaneous improvement of students’ achievement level as measured by the tasks designed to assess the content
• Practices that involve the reproduction of actual assessment materials to prepare students for the assessment
• Preparation of assessment that focuses on the instruments, its format rather than the objectives being assessed

Each of the tests is a sample of the large body of knowledge which the teacher is required to teach. When the teacher decide to teach to the test the interpretation of the test score is corrupted. Additionally, the pressure for accountability causes some teachers to tamper with their methods of teaching so as to acquire high scores. These practices are extensive and can be traced to the reductionist thinking that the test score merit the school or the teacher (1999).

To a large extent, teachers are pressured to improve and maximize the tests scores. Pressure can be defined as the perception on the part of the teachers that the stakeholders either external or internal to the school expect that teachers will demonstrate improved test score performance (1994). Some educators may even resort into producing fraudulent results through the dismissal of students that are less likely to pass or score high in the exams. Reading the answers to the students is also easy to do since the test involves multiple choices. Students’ answers may also be corrected after the tests. Such practices may occur especially when the teachers feel no choice but to tamper with the testing process.

Also, the results are assessed by groups and the focus is based on group performance rather than the individual scores. Although this kind of assessment need to meet very high standards for technical accuracy because of the high stakes associated with the results the individual scores contributing to the group information need not be so reliable and so not need to be directly comparable so long as the individual results are not reported ( 1994).

 

 

III.           Variables in the Program

Sanctions and Rewards

On a high stake test such as that implemented by the program, teachers are concerned primarily on how their students will perform well in the test. As such, teachers tend to spend a great amount of their teaching time on the knowledge and skills assessed by the test. The results are seen by the students, teachers, administrators, parents and the general public as being important to make important decisions ( 1994). As contrast to low stakes test, the perceive performance in this form of testing is being directly linked to a reward. Thus, the numeracy testing program can be perceived by the schools as high stakes since it is associated with increase funding.

Teaching to the Test

The teaching is focused on to what is measured by the test. However, the scores may be on the rise but not necessarily the skills itself that improves. For instance, the teaching is aimed at the test item and the item format rather than the construct or the numeracy skill which intend to measure. It is not that the teachers would want to narrow down their teaching or limit unduly students’ educational experience but if the test scores have significant effects on the school, then the teachers perceive it as part of their duty to ensure that all the pupils are given the best possible chance to pass the test.

The problem is that the teachers pay particular attention to high stakes test and adjust their teaching accordingly. The form of test question thus narrow the instruction and learning to the detriment of other skills. When the test results are the sole or even partial arbiter of the future educational choices, the results tend to be treated as the major goal rather than useful indicator of achievement (1994). This leads to the question whether the program really serves as a guarantor of educational standards or is mainly a public relations gesture. For instance, the test program does not describe the reality of the program. In fact it does not give diagnostic information.

External Factors

The students involved in the testing program come from different social economic status. Students learning abilities are affected by factors outside the school and this is a major factor in terms of the differences in the test scores. Some of these factors are mental ability and social capital, a broad concept that includes family and home factors as well as neighborhood factors. In some extreme cases, no amount of teaching can overcome low social capital. This fact is known to teachers especially those from rural areas.

According to  (1994) there is a range of hypotheses that accounts for differences in group performance. These are either environmental or biological. The biological differences though are no longer use to account for differences in performance. Environmental hypotheses include cultural, social and psychological influences that affect the development of individuals within a specific group. The equality of opportunity, which is equal access to schooling and curriculum, must also be considered in the differential performance ().

 

 

IV.          Sampling Process

            The participant schools are different in a number of demographic characteristics. Because the schools enroll a variety of students from suburban and urban geographic locations, the cultural diversity and household economic status is not similarly distributed across the schools. Lastly, the participant schools differ in terms of student population. The teachers also vary in terms of their experience and the duration of their teaching across the participating schools.

The participants for the test programs involve schools with varying sizes. The size range from the 100 students organized into seven classes and 600 students organized into 20 classes. This has implication in terms of the result and their comparison with other schools. Schools with larger number of students perform below the expected achievement levels. It has been widely documented that in urban and rural schools with high levels of poverty, students are likely to be given inordinate amounts of test preparation and are subject to pull out programs and extra instruction which can detract from the time devoted to regular curricular activities. This is especially true for schools that are low performing and in which the improvement on tests is essential to ensure the teachers do not lose their jobs (2004).

            Generalizability across tasks can also become a big problem in the assessment regardless of the subject matter or the level of analysis (individual or school), there are large numbers of tasks that need to get a generalizable measure of achievement. The issue of generalizability – whether the child’s performance in one or two tasks can fairly represent what he/she knows of the subject-is an important one that greatly influences the conclusions made from the tests. Issues of generalizability are important challenge to the test developers interested in the expanding the use of performance assessment (1992).

If individual scores are not required, sampling techniques can be used to mitigate these issues. For instance, large scale assessment can use multiple prompts in each mode but the student answers only one or two of a large number of prompts. The large number of children answering any one prompt allows generalizable inferences to be made within and across modes about levels of numeracy achievement for students as a whole. The use of sampling techniques must be use by the administrators to make generalizable inferences about schools or districts without having to administer long and costly tests to the students (1992).

            When sampling is used, inferences can be made about the schools system based on testing a representative sample of students or by giving each student a sample of all the testing tasks. Such method can lessen the direct costs in using long and labor intensive performance tasks, allow broader coverage of content areas that appears on the tests and keep the testing time limited. Further, the sampling methods provide protection against the misuse of a test or other functions since the students are not receiving individual scores.

 

 

V.           Validity and Reliability of Program and its Results

There are three main technical criteria in which the technical quality of the tests should be evaluated: reliability, validity and fairness. It is important that the test contains only a sample of all the questions that could be asked in the subject area or domain. Test scores are useful to the extent that they reflect the student’s mastery of the domain the test is designed to measure. Because the tests are samples, the confidence placed in the scores depends on how well the test covers the range of knowledge and skills it is supposed to measure. The quality of the tests depends not only on how well the test is designed but on how the scores are used ().

Indeed, the valid interpretations and the uses of test results become a critical concern of the test program. The test conducted once a year is not a good measure of learning. Performance assessment is fundamentally criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. Performance assessment is concerned with the degree to which the students demonstrate knowledge and skills in mathematics. On the other hand, norm referenced tests such that of the test program are less valuable (1999). Teachers may learn what their students can do in comparison with students of their same age but the items on the test my not reflect the curriculum of the given school. Moreover, the results of the test are not known for some time. Even for those items included in the school curriculum, it does not help the teacher to learn that a student did not know a concept that was previously taught. Thus, the information regarding the problem of the student in learning a specific domain may come too late to be useful.

            It must be acknowledged that the most important consideration in evaluating the test program is the utility criterion. The purpose of the test must be to improve the services for children and ensure that they benefit from their educational experiences. No matter how good the test results are and judged to be valid and reliable, they are to be discouraged without documented research showing that children benefit from their use. Thus, the results of the test program may be questionable if evaluation is based on the scores alone and not the actual benefit the children get from it. For one, the worth of the students is measured by scores that are not likely to be validly interpreted. Further, the effectiveness of the teaching is often judged in the basis of school average. This overlooks the fact that the students’ development and cognitive abilities are uneven.

            According to  (1991) many school districts do not used the standardized testing programs can produce alternative evidences of students’ productivity and teachers’ effectiveness (1998). The use of student portfolio is gaining support. It can directly reflect what the students are learning in ways that the test program never can. One advantage of this is the perspective of time. It shows the growth of students in some important ability over the entire school year. Thus, such alternative assessments must be promoted.

 

A Case Study Paper on TV Commercial Analysis

TV Commercial Analysis

 

Introduction

Development by imitation of role models, “observational learning”, and other principles of socialization, have also constituted broad associationist models, although, again, there has been little regard for actual cognitive aspects of the processes.  (1989) has augmented his early “social learning theory” with an important role for cognitive regulations in the individual’s reactive self-control and guidance of his or her behaviour. He now calls his theory “social cognitive theory” and describes social learning as “knowledge acquisition through cognitive processing of information” (1989), rejecting what he calls the “cognitive bypass operation”. According  (1977), most of the behavior of humans is being learned through observations.  This means that by merely observing the work of others, some individuals are able to form a certain idea on how new behaviors can be performed. Then, in later instances, this coded idea eventually serves as a guide for such individual’s action.

 

An important aspect of ’s theory is the self-knowledge that individual gain about themselves, by interaction with others. This includes perceptions of their competence in each of the various domains with which they have to deal. There may be a deep disjunction between what children can do and what they think they can do, and a number of studies have shown how this directly affects their behaviour. There are four conditions which are essential before a person can successfully model or copy the behaviour of another. This includes, attention, retention and motivation and motor reproduction. In order to understand more the social cognitive theory, this paper would try to analyse a New Zealand Ad commercial.

 

Analysis of Commercial

 

            For this analysis, the commercial that I will be going to use is a TV commercial of Air New Zealand. As mentioned, the analysis will be using the social cognitive theory by .  By paying attention to the commercial, it can be seen that the commercial is about parents with their daughter living abroad. When the daughter gave birth to a baby girl she called up her mother and tells her about the good news, while the father just ignores the news.  

 

 By observing thoroughly, in the commercial the excitement of the new grandmother has been seen all throughout the scene and whenever she thinks of her grandchild, she cries, while the grandfather seems to feel nothing. The grandparents decided to visit their daughter and the grandmother seems more excited to see her grandchild. When they arrive at the airport, the grandmother cried once again. And when the grandfather carries his grandchild into his arms, he suddenly cried.

 

            Using the third condition, i.e. motivation, which means that learning happens when individuals observes others behavior and eventually imitate the behavior of others, what I have learned in the commercial is that, a woman and a man is really different when it comes to showing their emotions. As can be seen throughout the commercial, the woman is always crying to show her happiness for having a new grandchild. On one hand, the man, always show empty emotions and expression towards the child. In addition, I have learned also that the expression of a man becomes more visible when he is closer to a person, in this case, the grandfather on his grandchild.  With this, I have learned that showing affections may also mean showing your true emotions and one must not feel ashamed in showing his or her emotions.

 

            For the last element of the social cognitive theory, we may view the commercial as a good example or model to be imitated by a parent. For example, if I will become a parent, I will see to it that I will always be more sensitive to the feelings of my better-half. In addition, I will see to it also that I will not hide my emotions, because it really helps in having closer and tighter family ties.

 

            Using the four elements of social cognitive theory, it can be said that the commercial has been able to get the attention of the target audience, make the target audience observed the personality of each individual in the commercial, motivates the audience by learning the value and importance of being near with their loved ones and allow the audience to do the same as they faced with such situation.

 

Summary and Conclusions

 

The Air New Zealand is known to be an airline company with an aim of providing quality service to people. The Air New Zealand TV Commercial encourage people to visit their relatives abroad to be able to have a closer family ties. For this study, the Air New Zealand Commercial targets individuals who have family members abroad. The main target of this commercial are those people who are not visiting their family for a long time.

 

In the commercial, the decision of the audience was influenced by the distinctive characteristics of the individual who are acting in the commercial. I have been attracted with the commercial because I can associate it on giving importance to being close with my family and never be ashamed for my true emotions and feelings.

 

This decision process is influenced by the information available to the audience and the way in which the audience processes that information. The decision process is also influenced by my belief, attitude, and intention as well as many other individual characteristics. Audience cognitive development includes experience with learning the main theme of the commercial, and the kinds of criteria the audience uses in judging the commercial.

 

I can say that the commercial has been able to make a mark on the audience. The touching story of a family that is not living together is also an important subject of the commercial. With this, everyone who watches the commercial will be touched and may be able to decide on visiting their family immediately. it is said that audience behaviour increasingly turning to the study of the use of metaphors. In the commercial I can see the distinctiveness of using grandparents who really miss their daughters and their excitement to see their new grandchild. We may think that this type of a scenario may not be seen everyday, so we immediately link ourselves as one of the members of the family in the commercial.

 

Perhaps, the notion of advertising and promotional campaigns will always be regarded as one of the most effective way and important instrument for introducing or presenting new discoveries for the targeted individuals.  Generally, advertising or promotional campaigns are regarded as an open sponsorship of offering products, services and any ideas through the use of any mediums of communication.  With its beginning, advertising is known to be a simple announcement. With the way the commercial was done, I can say that it has been able to get the attention of the audience, make the audience observed more the essence of the commercial, motivates them to learn things, especially on family matters and make them be more positive in imitating the behaviour of each of the member of the family.

 

References

The contributions and learning outcomes of Physical Education under the New Academic Structure for Senior Secondary Education

The contributions and learning outcomes of Physical Education under the New Academic Structure for Senior Secondary Education

 Overview

The Education sector takes up the highest share of budgetary allocation in Hong Kong. It accounts for almost one quarter of the total public expenditure in which the secondary education accounts to around one third of the total education expenditure. To date, Hong Kong has been undergoing rapid changes in all areas of education. Fundamentally, the school curriculum reforms calls for the development of a new culture of learning and teaching as well as the strengthening of the subject contents. Many schools in Hong Kong have failed in setting priorities in terms of the subjects that should be taught in the classroom as well as the allocation of time for non academic subjects. Teachers are increasingly concerned with the little attention given to extracurricular activities and personality development ( 2003)

As a former British colony, the education system in Hong Kong is based on the United Kingdom particularly the system employed in England. The system includes a non compulsory three year kindergarten which is followed by a six year primary education. The secondary education features a three year junior secondary education and a non compulsory two year senior secondary education which will lead to the Certificate of Education Examinations and a two year course which also leads to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations.

            Under the new 3+3+4 senior secondary curriculum, there will be a three year junior secondary, a three year senior secondary and a four year undergraduate academic system that will be implemented by the year 2009 onwards( 2007). The change in the curriculum can be considered the most dramatic reform in Hong Kong. It can be categorized into three integrated dimensions: change in the structure of the education system, change in the curriculum and the change in the public examinations.

            Such reform has been supported by the new understanding of learning which follows the global understanding that learning is the learner’s construction of knowledge and is then a matter of learning experiences in meaningful activities that fosters values. With this, the subjects are replaced with learning experiences in the eight Key Learning Areas (KLAs). The idea behind this reform is for the students to focus initially on languages and mathematics and then carry out their chosen studies in science or humanities (2006). Physical Education has been included among these key learning areas.

Over the years, the public policy which addresses the development of physical education has been assigned to programmes associated with the opportunities for young people to take part in sport. Every major strategic plan of the government for sport has been emphasized to young people. Generally, sports policies for young people are centered on three areas of activity. First is to strengthen the physical education and sport within schools. Secondly, to create sustainable links between the sports played in the school and those played outside the school or within the community. Lastly, to develop means that will ensure that talented participants can progress in this area (19997). Governments invest in sports not only to assist the development of sport itself but mostly to help improve the quality of life of its citizens.

Features of the Curriculum Design for P.E

Based on the Senior Secondary Curriculum guide, Physical education (PE) is an elective subject leading to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education. It is one of the eight Key Learning Areas (KLAs) included in the curriculum reform. The important components of the PE KLA consist of the ‘education of the physical’ which means helping students to obtain good health, good looking body and good performance in the field of sports as well as the ‘education about the physical’ which means helping the students understand the theoretical aspects.

In order to meet the needs and interest of the students, there are four curricula included in the new curriculum for physical education. These are General PE, PE elective, Liberal Studies: Sports and Health Unit and Career Oriented Studies: Coaching and Sports & Recreation management.  All senior secondary students are required to take the General PE while the others are optional (2004).

            The General PE is built upon the six strands of PE which includes the development of motor and sport skills, health and fitness, sports related values and attitudes, knowledge and practice of safety, knowledge of movement and aesthetic sensitivity. Students will be encouraged to participate in areas of activities such as athletics, ball games, gymnastics, aquatics, dance, physical fitness and outdoor pursuits. Liberal studies as a core subject in the New Senior Secondary Curriculum will broaden the students’ knowledge and improve their social awareness. Students will be nurtured to become critical, reflective and independent through multi perspective and inquiry approaches. They will become more informed and responsible individuals which is necessary for their development and fulfillment.

On the other hand, Career Oriented Studies: Coaching and Sports & Recreation Management will assist students to build foundation for career development and further studies in other areas. Concerns on the roles of leisure, recreation and sports in the development of healthy and quality lives have been raised over the years. As these areas are rapidly growing, there is the increasing demand for professionals trained in the field such as coach, program organizer, facilities manager and therapists. This elective will help students to decide a career path in the other related fields.

PE elective emphasizes on the connection of theories and practical skills to further develop the interest of students in the area of Sports, PE and recreation. Students under this elective are expected to acquire a deeper understanding of theories and applications in the human movement and health. It is unique among other senior secondary elective subjects as it aims to cultivate a critical mass of individuals. Under this elective, students will have knowledge of PE, sports and recreation that will enable them be critical and reflective of the issues affecting their lives at the personal, community, national and global levels.

As they become physically and mentally healthy, they will be more capable of facing challenges and regulate themselves to adopt a healthy lifestyle and eventually encourage others to follow their ways of living. Aside from this, they are expected to develop moral behaviors in respecting the plurality of cultures in the context of PE, sports and recreation ( 2006).

Learning Outcomes

Physical education can contribute to the physical self, emotional, social and personal self, spiritual and community self. In short, it can contribute to the development of the whole person. It also has the potential to make significant contributions in other areas of the educational development of the individual. Such view is supported by many curriculum documents, physical education texts and current researches ()

Upon the completion of the PE elective, students will obtain a strong knowledge base, desirable attitudes and values and the necessary skills that will make them active and healthy individuals. Additionally, they will develop a foundation for further education in science, humanities and social sciences.

There are four categories of learning outcomes that are identified under the PE Elective

Science foundation

Ø  broaden the knowledge base and deepen the understanding of issues relating to body maintenance and self enhancement. Increase the intellectual capacity in integrating physical skills to theoretical learning with the use of physical experiences to strengthen the conceptual understanding and thinking and evaluate the theories relevant in the contexts of PE, sport and recreation

Humanities and Social Science Foundation

Ø  connect the principles of PE, sport and recreation to related fields and disciplines and develop awareness on the their links to further education and career paths

Generic Skills

Ø  develop generic skills specifically communication and critical thinking skills and be able to apply them in real life situations along with their collaborative skills and creativity

Values and Attitudes

Ø  develop personal as well as social qualities, pleasing sporting manners, commitment, sense of responsibility and the respect for the different cultures when organizing events involving physical activities both in the school and in the larger community.

Pros and Cons

There has been recent reawakening notion that schools are not solely for educating students and training them for adult life but also to produce rational, effective and socially responsible citizens who can fulfill useful roles in the community. Social and morale responsibility fits very well in the rationale of physical education. Sports, being a microcosm of the society can assist in the inculcation of values. What can be consciously promoted in PE can also be transferred to other areas of the curriculum and in the lives of young people in general. To be part of the sporting community also allows the individuals to acquire a wealth of common experiences that is shared by them wherever they play. There are also political initiatives manifested in physical education. For example, the existence of specialist sports college (2001). Thus, students are not only nurtured physically but are also inculcated with social values as they engage in physical education activities.

Generally, Physical education will equip the students with the knowledge and skills that are necessary to pursue an active and healthy lifestyle. By engaging in the broad range of physical activities, students will develop their interest and the ability to remain physically active. They will be nurtured to become healthy and productive individuals that will lead to the reduction of future medical expenditures for diseases.

The breadth of the P.E curriculum will help students who are particularly interested in PE and sports and establish a solid foundation for further studies and future advancements. The variety and flexibility of the curriculum will enable them to advance smoothly into higher education and possibly to future careers in areas such as human biology, nursing, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, PE, sports and recreation. It will contribute to the development of skills as well as positive values specifically sportsmanship and perseverance. All of which are in line with the World Health Organization’s agenda of building a long term capacity for a healthy society (2004). Ultimately, physical education will make significant contribution in the whole development of the person and in the realization of a healthy community.

            Undeniably, the success of the new curriculum is dependent on the students and teachers collaborative effort. However, PE teachers in Hong Kong have been historically weak. This may be problem especially since the learning area cannot be redirected to other teachers. In addition to this, teachers are also faced with the problem of compressing the time and the increase in their workload.

            Another problem with the physical education curriculum is the issue of equality among students. Issues of class, sexuality, ability and culture have obvious bearings in the ways by which men and women are positioned socially and in status under the context of physical education. Marginalization has been a reality for women as well as to men in physical education. It is something which will be experienced by many individuals in different settings. This is so because people are judged based on the existing and prevailing norms dictated by the dominant groups. As a consequence, some people may be viewed as deficient and are subjected to prejudices in physical education (2002). All too often, judgments are made in connection to a single and stereotypical image of masculinity and femininity that ahs been viewed as the norm. Indeed, individuals must be ensured to have their legitimate place in physical education regardless of their differences.

Implications of the new curriculum

Part of the curriculum reform is the attempt to introduce school-based assessment which is likely to provoke teacher opposition due to the increase in their workload. The reform also compress the time that is used for formal curriculum while creating rooms for different sorts of student activities as part of their wide training (2006).

The implementation of the Physical education Reform poses difficulties in terms of school policies. For most P.E teachers, the P.E assessment is no value in terms of promoting the school. Hence, they are faced with the problem of implementation since they are too preoccupied with school work. The insufficiency in time for teaching P.E and assessment for too many students in the class remains a major barrier. Ultimately, teachers are facing problems which are related to the concept of P.E assessment ()

Until recently, physical education has been characterized with the lack of formal assessment. Assessment has been an integral part of teaching and learning. However, assessments in PE classes are often a problem. for one, teachers are compelled to make their comments under pressure if time and the limitation of space. Oftentimes, comments are short, general or vague such as ‘satisfactory’ which may men that the students is satisfactory or the teacher is not sure who he/she is so it must be satisfactory. PE teachers usually find difficulties in making accurate assessments especially those who had to take a large number of classes and students (1994).

Strengthening Students’ Motivation in Physical Education

Physical education has a clear motivational problem. More often than not, the students’ interest in PE declines as they progress through school. Given this, a successful physical education program can be achieved if the students are motivated to learn the intended objectives. Motivation can be defined as the collection of causes which engages someone in an activity (2004). Among the potential barriers to motivation are the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of the students.  A problem arises especially since the motivation varies from one person to another. Therefore, the involvement may be unpleasant for some and the intrinsic motivation to participate is lost. To address this problem, lessons must be designed in accordance to their meaning and significance to the students. Extrinsic motivation is also a potential barrier since students are motivated to engage in the activity to receive rewards (2004).

The practices of the teacher can also be a barrier since they are faced with the immensely difficult task of motivating each individual. To become effective, they must continuously examine their teaching styles and adapt to the changing needs and emends of the students. The attitude of the teacher affects the students and therefore they must improve their credibility and influence through planning, goal setting and exhibiting conduct exemplifying the behavior expected of the students. Teachers must also elicit enthusiasm about physical education. This way they can get the students motivated and active. A variety of teaching strategies can also be used.

The curriculum also plays a crucial part in strengthening the motivation. Students who do not enjoy what they are doing could simply avoid the activity. Physical education can be integrated in a way that students will see the meaning across disciplines. It can be integrated with other key learning areas such as math and physics, science and humanities. The curriculum must also be developmentally appropriate to meet the needs and the interest of the students.

For the physical education to be successful, it is necessary that the barriers to its implementation are overcome. It is important that everyone gets involved in to make the collective effort to break such barriers. However, the teacher holds most of the challenges to break down such barriers. Physical Education teachers must continually advocate the importance of physical education and its lasting effects in the health and well being of the students.

Conclusion

Hong Kong has been reforming its Secondary Education as a response to the need of developing a new culture of learning and teaching and strengthening of the subject contents. Perhaps the most dramatic reform in Hong Kong is the change in its curriculum which encompasses the change in the structure of the education system, change in the curriculum and the change in the public examinations. This kind of reform is in accordance to global understanding that learning is the learner’s construction of knowledge and learning experiences which identified eight Key Learning Areas (KLAs).

Among these key learning areas is Physical Education. Physical education (PE) has become an elective subject in the curriculum leading to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education. The important components of the PE KLA involve educating the students to obtain good health and helping them to gain an understanding of the theoretical aspects of physical education. The inclusion of this elective is aimed at the acquisition of knowledge of PE, sports and recreation that will enable students to be critical of the issues affecting them in the different levels of their daily lives.

As students become physically and mentally healthy, they will be more capable of regulating themselves to adopt a healthy lifestyle and encourage others to follow their ways of living. Moreover, physical education does not only contribute to the physical self but to all aspects which leads to the development of a whole person. With this, the PE curriculum is expected to benefit the students in terms of acquiring a strong knowledge base, desirable attitudes and values and the necessary skills for a healthy living. They will also develop a foundation for further learning in other related areas such as science, humanities and social sciences.

Along with these benefits are the potential barriers and challenges to the implementation and success of the program. Undeniably, the teachers will face greater challenges in terms of assessment and time allocation. The curriculum reform has introduced the infusion of learning areas which increased the workload of teachers and compressed their time. Also more PETE in Hong Kong must be improved since it has been historically weak. Another problem with the physical education curriculum is marginalization among students.

Indeed the status of Physical Education can be improved and the motivation of the students to engage in such activities can be maintained only if these barriers are overcome. Ultimately, the appropriate curriculum and the teachers’ practices will be the crucial factors to maintain the enthusiasm towards physical education until the next few years.

USE OF JOURNAL IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

In the context of pre-service teacher education, journaling is a Reflective Practice tool which can be used for understanding experiences and a means of clarifying attitudes.  Journaling allows the student teacher to reflect on learning that has occurred and it also provides a way of interpreting this learning and of defining future action.

 

*This type of journal is written using the “I” perspective.

 

2.    TYPES OF REFLECTION USED IN JOURNALING

 

·       Descriptive Reflection.  This involves describing what has been seen, heard, experienced.

 

·       Critical Reflection.  This can involve elements of :

                   

             evaluating

             self-analysing

   contesting

   appraising

   developing personal theories

   planning for the future                                 

(Modified from Bartlett 1990)

 

3.    JOURNALING PROCESS

 

·       Describe briefly, the particular information/experience/situation.

·       Explain your reaction(s) to this – thoughts, feelings, values.

·       Confront how you came to think or feel this way – beliefs/philosophy.

·       Reconstruct, if appropriate, by suggesting alternatives to the initial information/ experience/ situation.

·       Define future action.

·       Identify any uncertainties/questions that you may still have.

·       Revisit your previous recordings.  This may result in re-recording and/or further recordings that try to formulate possible answers to the uncertainties/questions raised earlier.

(Modified from Smyth 1993)

 

4.    QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR JOURNALING

 

·       Are your journal entries regular?

 

·       Have you been brief in the descriptive reflection phase most of your time being critically reflective?

 

 

·       Have you shown evidence of new learning/insights and explained their implications for you?

 

·       Have you related the new learning/insights to learning in other areas or further research/reading?

 

 

·       Have you included suggestions for improved practice and any further questions/concerns you may have?

 

·       Have you written your entries in a way that is appropriate for this type of journal (i.e., it is not a diary)?

 

 

·       Is the presentation of your work of a high standard?

 

 

·       Reference to a diversity of teaching strategies.

·       Reflections should include descriptive (what you have seen, heard, experienced), self and critical.

·       Remembering that critical reflection can involve elements of: evaluating, self-analysis, contesting, appraising, developing personal theories and planning for the future.

 

Explain how the principles of Montessori philosophy underpin the sensorial activities

Explain How the Principles of Montessori Philosophy Underpin the Sensorial Activities

            Different modern psychological research has determined that flashcards, drills and worksheets are not effective ways of teaching young children. Young children are not able to grasp abstract concepts. Instead, they learn by doing and using their five senses. Therefore, sensory activities help children to learn while they have direct, concrete, hands-on experience with the world around him (2006). Children needs frequent and varied physical activity to overcome early life sensory impairments, build optimal brain functioning, at the same time, regulate moods. It is important to focus on choosing fun games that involve balance, hand-eye coordination, motion in space, hanging, sliding, repetitive motion and deep pressure on muscles and joints ( 2007). Every child craves or refuses sensory input depending on their different preferences. All children exhibit the need for sensory activities and will usually respond to them by focusing better in the classroom, increasing interactions with peers, at the same time, improving the overall daily functioning ( 2006). It is important to take note of the fact that children need every opportunity to use, explore and wake-up their senses (2007), which is important in order to motivate the learning process of children. Furthermore, it can also help to maintain the level of learning to the age and focus of the children and that is to include fun and games while learning. This is important because the more excitement and joy children feel while learning, the more willing or motivated they are to learn.

            There are different Montessori sensory activities which help preschooler to improve their sight, touch, hearing and smell. This helps the children to improve their sense which is helpful in preparing them with higher level of curriculum and learning activities in the future.

            One of the important activities is the Silence Montessori Activity. This help to improve children’s senses by making them to identify objects by sound. The said activity can be done in two manners. First, the teacher/instructor can ask the children to sit comfortably and then listen and identify sound that they will hear in the environment or children will be blindfolded, and then they must identify the object that the teacher/instructor will present. This activity enables the children to improve their skills, particularly in listening. Thus, this is very important in the future education or curriculum because there are different studies which show that children tend to learn more by listening. Aside from that, it also improves the concentration of children by focusing on the sounds and the different sounds which can be heard in the environment. Concentration is very important in any curriculum and subject in the future because it can help the students to be more focus on the subject.

            Another important activity is the Mystery Bag Matching. Two of every item (prisms, cubes, spheres and cylinders) will be placed inside the bag and let the children distinguish and find two things that match without looking. Thus, it will develop the sense of touch of the student, at the same time, develop their critical skill. This is important because critical skill is very important in the higher level of education, therefore, it is important to introduce activities that will improve the said skill during the early age which will enable children to practice and improve.

            On the other hand, in order to improve sense of smell, it is important to include the Smelling Jars Montessori Activity. This focus on presenting four different sets of salt and pepper shakers with a cotton ball inside. Students will have to identify the smell of the jars, at the same time arrange the jars in pairs, by comparing the smell and grouping it. This activity enables the children to develop their sense of smell which is important in everyday life. Furthermore, because the activity enables the children to group the smell, it enables the children to develop their sense of identifying and decision-making on how to group the jar sets. 

            In general, it can be said that Montessori activities focuses on developing the senses of the children. Senses are considered as the primary base for the literacy and learning development of each and every individual. These senses can be used in order to judge things, and judging or decision-making is considered as the basic aspect in the process of learning, which will be used not only inside the classroom but also in the real world and in daily life.

 

 

 

 

Explain How We Indirectly Prepare Children For The Montessori Literacy Curriculum. Illustrate Your Answers With

Explain How We Indirectly Prepare Children For The Montessori Literacy Curriculum. Illustrate Your Answers With

            Literacy is traditionally defined as the ability to use language in reading, writing, listening and speaking. However, it is important to consider the fact that literacy is not just about being able to read and write. Those literate children see reading as fun and exciting by using different activities towards literacy to learn about a wide range of subjects, at the same time share their ideas. As a result, children will have rich imaginations and other interests. This is important and vital because those children who haven’t had a systematic and pleasurable to the world of literature are commonly tend to see writing and reading as a chore or something that they do because they have to. Literacy is important because it widens a person’s world, while illiteracy narrows it (2004).

            Due to that, it is vital for children to be guided as they enter early literacy. Everyone agrees that children need to succeed in school, because there are different factors which children can learn inside their school which can be applied in their daily lives. While there are many factors which affect how well a child does in an academic setting, their early intellectual growth plays a critical role. The United Nations Children’s Fund stated that investing in children from birth to age of 3 is the only way in order to make sure that every child has the chance to reach his or her full potential. Thus, one of the most important elements of childhood development is the formation of literacy skills 2006).

            Therefore, in order to guide the children towards literacy, it is important to start at very young age, and help them to learn on the different skills that are needed including reading, writing, listening and speaking. In order to do this, there are different activities that must be done, together with the different factors in the environment that must be considered.

            First, it is important for the parents to consider the fact that literacy and learning begins at home, therefore, it is the responsibility of the parents to help their children be aware about the different factors which will help them to be literate. First, children need to be exposed to books at a very early age. Different researches showed that when children listen to stories, they gain crucial language skills. Learning to read and write begins at infancy and continues throughout the toddler’s years. The study of Dr.  with , even before children can read themselves, reading aloud to very young children is extremely beneficial to the children (I 2006). Therefore, it is important to parents to incorporate story telling as part of bonding. This enables the children to enjoy at the same time learn (I2006).

            Right from a very young age, children benefit when their parents open the world of books towards them. Therefore, it is important for the parents to introduce books to their children. This can be done by focusing on starter books with lots of pictures and words, which will drive interests from the children. It is also important to focus on reading aloud, by reading and re-reading words, children will be given many opportunities to learn how the words come together in full and interesting sentences. It will be helpful if an open conversation will be done by asking and answering questions with connection to given book or story. It is also important to connect the world of books to the own experience of children which they encountered while playing with their friends or with the family. It is always important to connect learning with their interests including their toys, favorite activities as well as their fantasy. By sparking the imagination of the children, their attention is stretching which opens for more opportunities of literacy (2004). This enables the children to know more about reading, at the same time improve their self-esteem and encourage them to learn more.

            In order to drive interests and motivation from the children, it is also important to incorporate games in the process of learning. This can be done by playing word games with the children and then offering incentive every time they have answered right. By doing this, children will be able to take learning as part of playing and a normal part of their lives. As a result, children will be able to have a positive thinking and notion about learning, which can help them in higher level of learning.

 

 

 

 

 

Practical Life in Early Childhood

            The aim of exercises in practical life is to facilitate learning through day to day work in the children’s home. By entrusting house work to young children, they learn important lessons. The little ones execute with devotion and accuracy their domestic duties. By doing so they become singularly calm and dignified. The students are required to sweep their rooms, dust and clean the furniture and arrange it as they like. They learn dressing and undressing and washing themselves. They are expected to hang up their clothes tidily. They lay their tables. The children take turns in various household duties. They learn by imitation to overcome their difficulties in the process. The main purpose of exercises in practical life id to give children training in self-reliance and liberty and also to be independent (2005).

 

Montessori Toddler and Primary programs have exercises designed to inspire movements directed to constructive ends, called the Exercises of Practical Life. Some of the main purposes of including such exercises in the classroom are:

1. To educate the children’s movements to be geared to a purpose

2. To develop children’s ability to concentrate on a task

3. To help children learn to carry out a series of steps in sequence

4. To help children learn to care for the environment

 

These exercises are foundational to many aspects of Montessori education. With regard to the relationship between movement and cognition, these exercises are particularly because they employ the body in the service of the mind to fulfill a meaningful goal. Montessori observed that young children are attracted to precision in the early years, such that they like to know exactly what sequence of steps to carry out in an exercise. She considered early childhood to be a sensitive period for attention to precision. As one example of a Practical Life Exercise, Montessori Toddler and Primary classrooms are normally equipped with a set of materials for Table Washing. This set includes a large basin to fill with water, a plastic mat to go under the table, soap, a scrub brush, a sponge, and a towel for drying. The items are all of a size and weight appropriate to a small child, and are usually of the same color, so that they obviously go together. Like other materials in Montessori classrooms, they are designed to appeal to children, in order to inspire use. The teacher demonstrates for the child a precise sequence of actions that are carried out in Table Washing. The child has probably also observed other children carrying out the sequence of actions, enabling him or her to learn by observation.

            Life activities normally have a practical end, filling a real need in the classroom. The fact that Practical Life Activities serve a practical purpose is theoretically important because Montessori believed that for action to be useful to mental development, the action that occurs must be connected with the mental activity going on. Only real goals truly engage the mind in the movement. In addition to providing meaning for actions, Practical Life activates lead children to practice concentration, a hallmark of Montessori education. Through concentration, Montessori believed children develop an inner calm that they bring to their other activities in the classroom (2005).

            Based on the idea that freedom implies self-sufficiency, Exercises on Practical Life sought to train the growing young to master such essential skills and knowledge as dressing, maintaining themselves clean and tidy, dusting and sweeping, table-setting, meal and serving and the like. Montessori aims at free activity not at the cost of good manners, social order and harmony, nor even at the misuse of freedom to be identical with license. In her own Children’s House where children aged three to seven play and work under the supervision of a Directress who does not act as a passive onlooker but as an active observer (1995). The exercises of practical life are designed to teach the child to be independent, to supply his own wants and to perform the actions of daily life with skill and grace. The pupils keep the schoolroom in order, dusting and arranging the furniture, and putting away each piece of material as soon as they are through with it. They wait on themselves while they are working, getting out the things they want, finding a convenient place to work, and then taking care of the apparatus when they have worked with as long as they like. In schools where the children do not live in the building, a midday lunch is served for the pupils; and, except for the cooking, the children do all the work connected with the meal, setting tables, serving food, and the clearing away and washing the dishes. All the pupils share alike in this work, regardless of their age; children of three and four soon learn to handle the plates and glasses, and to pass the food (2008).

 

            The foundations of Practical Life Activities in the Primary years are considered vital to the ability to function well in Elementary classrooms; children who lack the Primary Montessori experience are said to often have trouble settling in and concentrating on Montessori work. They also often lack other skills and knowledge learned in Primary, including such specifically academic skills as reading, writing, and math, foundational vocabulary, and more general skills such as self-motivation, self-direction, and self-discipline. These building blocks for work in Montessori Elementary are expected to be established during the Primary years (2005).

 

 

 

The Effectiveness of School Councils in the United Kingdom

The Effectiveness of School Councils in the United Kingdom

 

Introduction

            The educational system of England underwent a lot of significant reforms right from the introduction of the 1944 Education Act.  The Act gave everyone a free access to a secondary education for the first time.  However, the system has certain setbacks that have been noticed.  The secondary moderns failed to challenge the majority of the brightest students and denied opportunities for a vocational education since technical schools never really played a major part in the system. 

            Even though there have been initially pressures from middle class parents not pleased with the standards in secondary moderns, it paved the way for comprehensive schools and the conversion of grammars and secondary moderns in the 1960s and 1970s. 

            It was in the late eighties that a National Curriculum was introduced which was accompanied by greater accountability through national testing and regular independent inspection.  Such accountability was extended even up to 1997 with literacy and numeracy reforms in primary schools that aims to encourage improvements in all schools.  There were then expectations to improve quickly those failing schools while a challenge has been set for those under-performing schools. 

            With such a new educational system in the late 90s, the quality of teaching has been transformed.  The proficiency of teaching rises in primary schools from 45% in 1997 to 74% in 2004/05, and from 59% to 78% in secondary schools. 

 

United Kingdom’s Educational System

            In transforming England’s school system, the first step was determined by the needs and aspirations of parents.  Parents played a significant role in their quest for excellent educational system for their child.  Accounting to this, it was a challenge for the education department in giving every parent confidence that their child will gain outstanding education.  Furthermore, schools were shaped according to the interest of parents and children.  Good schools were expanded that greatly influence and benefit more parents.  As parents have high aspirations for their children, it is appears that they also place high demands on schools.  They want the best for their own chills and also to have a strong stake in the performance of the school as a whole.  The support and commitment from parents are the most powerful influence on the learning and progress of the child.  These are just a good reason for the educational system to strive hard for higher standards.  A unique system, Sure Start Children’s Center was developed for the involvement of the parents making sure that what is delivered is right for them and their children.  Parents was in the center of everything the schools do. 

            Another factor that makes the United Kingdom’s educational system effective and undoubtedly a success is the ability of parents to express a preference for the school they want their child to attend.  In responding to this reality, the UK has a growing number of specialist schools and is predicted to be a fully specialist school system within just two years.  This will offer a greater choice for parents to choose what school would suit their child’s strengths and interests. 

            Personalized educational system tackles the persistent achievement gaps between different social and ethnic groups.  This resulted into an improved social mobility while driving up standards.  It is another key ingredient for the system’s effectiveness as it will create opportunity for every child regardless of their background. 

            Along with the achievement of high educational standards is the development of well-being of the children.  Unbelievably, UK has additional extended schools that offer a wider range of activities to a larger group of children.  Such extended schools will stretch and stimulate children and young people to learn and engage n sport and enrichment activities, especially to the disadvantaged. 

            Discipline also played a vital role in UK’s educational system for without it, it would be impossible for teachers to teach and for pupils to learn.  The schools have clear discipline and behavior codes where everybody knows what is expected of them and what the sanctions are for misbehavior. 

Conclusion

            There are actually a lot of factors for the effectiveness of the educational system of the United Kingdom.  With all those above-stated statements, UK’s educational system is without a doubt, a world-class system for other countries to follow. 

Why Opt to Take a Degree in Teaching?

This paper discusses why you should decide on taking a degree in teaching. An introduction provides the reader sufficient background on the topic and it is where the major points on the reasons on pursuing a degree on education is presented. The personal and professional benefits of the said degree are also included, together with the possible plans for you to utilize what you have learned in the program. As a closing, a conclusion paragraph is presented summarizing the thesis and its main points.

Introduction

            A lot of challenges arise in the selection of one’s career path. In spite of this, it is also exciting since there are many things to be considered before making your final decision on the said matter. The career that you should be taking by now will define what you will be in the future. Since what you are considering here is not just a short time, but also a lasting career for your whole lifetime.

            A self-assessment will help you know yourself better. Your interests and talents are a good place to start your self-assessment. You might consider asking yourself: Do I have a love for (continuous) learning? Do I enjoy being with children? Do I like the feeling of being smarter than others, even if the "others" are younger than I am (mostly below 8 years old or above, it depends)? Do I receive unlimited satisfaction from helping others learn new things? Do I enjoy challenges and ever-changing opportunities? If you have answered all or most of these questions with a yes, then teaching might be the one for you.

            Challenges for you are exciting, and the rewards of it are priceless.  A simple smile from the face of a young boy as a sign of his realization that he can now read are only a few of the numerous accomplishments in life teaching can give you. Therefore, if you want to be one of the inspirations of our future musicians, mathematicians, scientists, and other future professionals of the next generation, consider the profession of teaching.

Teaching as a Noble Profession

            One of the noblest professions is the teaching career. Parents will be entrusting you with their children for almost eight hours a day. In other words, it is your duty to make them smart. You should be able to mold them into responsible human beings that will not shoot other people. As you slowly recall your past teachers from elementary up to the last time of your student days, you will soon realize that being a good teacher is not that easy as you think. It takes a lot of work, sacrifices, patience and dedication. The only thing that is truly rewarding is that you really can create a positive impact on your community, if you have done an excellent job. Being a teacher is a wonderful responsibility.

            However, the pursuance of a degree in teaching should not be taken for granted. Your reasons on why you want to be in the field of teaching should always be with a purpose. Still, for you to have a purpose, you should have a better and definite view of the nature of your job, the challenges and difficulties that come along with it. You should be ready to face these challenges. Think of it like there is no turning back.

            Then from here, you can now base your purpose. Good purposes are said to be specific and personally meaningful. They represent your own bedrock convictions, things that you will never compromise. They are your deep abiding beliefs that may be buried within you for most of your life. You just barely know its existence. They affect the way you value some things over the other, unconsciously. In other words, they are considered personal to each individual.

            Teaching is a job that if you let it, can take more out of you than gets put back in. As we all know, the benefits of the teacher nowadays seems to be low and they deserve more considering the sacrifices and dedication they put on their profession. Even if the demands of the job are not always equal to the rewards you are going to get, this should not be a reason for you to be less effective or worse, totally ineffective. Instead, you should be thinking the other way around, getting something back even more than what you put in. In this way, you are discovering your own purpose in teaching that goes beyond just doing your job.

            Teaching is an interesting and challenging profession. It is not for the meek or faint of heart. With it come great challenges, opportunities and big responsibilities. You can choose from a number of alternatives. First, if you have the love or passion being with little kids, you can choose to teach young children in pre-school up to the elementary grades. However, if you opt to be with a little bit more mature children, you can work with middle and high school students. You can even specialize in different fields like arts, sciences, math, or technology education. You can also teach at a technical college or university level. Moreover if you still want a more challenging one, you can also work with special children. It includes cases like physically, emotionally or intellectually challenged children. You can act as a teacher, guidance counselor, psychologist, physical or occupational therapist, or as a social worker.

            Teaching is a demanding, yet rewarding profession. It takes your heart and passion to be an effective teacher to your students. They all depend on you. That is why it is not enough for you to have good purposes for teaching. You should also make those purposes come alive by letting them influence what you do and the way of your teaching.  

The Benefits of a Teaching Career

Personal Benefits

            Nothing can be compared to the joy brought about by a simple smile from the face of a little boy, from his delight that he can now read and enjoy reading fairytale books by himself. Knowing that you have imparted some of your knowledge to other people, especially the young ones, bring good feelings in our heart. Through the simple ABCs he uttered, the simple arithmetic he can now solve and the progress he undergoes are proofs in it. From there, we know that are sacrifices are now bearing its fruits and that we have completed a job well done. The best thing about being a teacher is simply the pure joy of working with kids. If you really work with your students, they can also mold you into being a great teacher.

            Aside from the said benefits, we can also consider other things as benefits of being in the field of teaching. One thing is the massive summer vacation. Another is the fact that there is no teaching during weekends and holidays. In addition, there is the feeling of superiority over them, you feel smarter even if you are far older than they are.  There is the feeling of self-fulfillment, a feeling that you have made a difference. It is worth the sacrifices especially if you can now see your former students to be professionals already, successful in their respective chosen careers. Isn’t that fulfilling that it even brings tears to our eyes brought by the happiness?

Professional Benefits

            Education degrees can prepare you to work in any of the various areas inside the field of education. Whatever your interest may be, be it in early childhood education, adult education, distance learning, or anything in between, there are education degree programs out there according to your specific training needs. These educational degrees are available in all levels. There are those for associate and bachelor’s level, as well as those for the advanced degree level. They can be found in different communities around the country. Due to the increased technology nowadays, there are also existing programs online. There is now the possibility of earning valuable degree programs from anyplace of your choice, in the country, without compromising the quality of education.

            For the individuals who earn education degrees, there exist a lot of opportunities for you upon graduation. Possible career paths include teaching in public and private schools, teaching adults in post-secondary settings, working as a school administrator or counselor, working in education policy, or taking a number of career paths in related fields, such as designing corporate training programs.

            In choosing this career path, you can also have additional opportunities in exercising your talents. You can act as a coach or an adviser to extra-curricular activities from groups like foreign language clubs. You can also use your leadership skills to mentor other teachers, on leading curriculum design teams or pursue building and district leadership options as a principal or superintendent. They can also use their leadership talents in advocating for others through the involvement in the teachers’ union, professional associations and community organizations.

            If these selections are still not enough for you, do not worry because teacher’s skills are transferable to other professions. Government, as well as the business-and-industry employers preferred hiring teachers due to their ability to work and communicate effectively with people. These abilities, together with other abilities on planning, organizing and acting as inspirations, make them even more attractive as employees. Although great teachers are badly needed to be in the classrooms, choosing this career path gives you a wide range of options aside from being in the classroom.     

            The benefits stated above are considered as non-monetary. Aside from those, being in the field of teaching entitles you also to certain monetary benefits. According to the National Education Association, the national average salary of a teacher for the years 2000-2001 was $43,335. You can even earn as high as $53,281 (in New Jersey) or as low as $30,265 (in South Dakota). Starting pay ranges from $23,126 to $31,601.

            Aside from this, other benefits include health insurance, sick leave and dental coverage, depending on the agreement. Other contracts may even include long-term disability insurance, life insurance, emergency or personal leave and investment options. You might also receive private scholarships and federal funding for teaching programs, as well as funding for teaching supplies. There are also available retirement benefits for those who dedicated most of their time to the teaching profession. For the present teachers, there are employee assistance programs for them in cases of emergencies and times of financial crisis. Membership to some unions is also required. They also assist its members in times of difficult situations. 

Conclusion

            Teaching is one of the noblest professions existing in this world. We should be thinking of teaching like this. When you teach an adult, you are going to the bank of a river. Any attempt on either widening it a little or narrowing it a little, you are making a little change in the river. However, it already got the direction. When you work with little streams, a small change in direction makes a small exposure to something new. The whole course of the future river changes for good or for bad. It is exciting to work with little streams. They admit their need on learning things. They hunger for knowledge. They even got excited when they learn something new. They actually squeal when they are happy.

            The teacher is the hope of the land. He must be a person that can be counted upon when others have left. He is a shoulder, a heart, and a mind rolled into one. This is what makes the difference between a teacher and a government official. To the teacher, work comes in first, last, and in between.

            Teaching, like learning, requires the engagement of the whole person: hand and eye, mind and heart. It is not a job for the second-rate or the uncommitted. It is a job for high achievers. Teachers are mothers, philosophers, police officers, doctors, nurses, counselors. You have to be prepared to take on those roles, to handle them and to go about the job of teaching.

            Despite these difficulties, many teachers survive; even thrive, in today's complicated educational milieu. The key to their success, according to teachers already in the field, are professional dedication and perseverance. Another key is that good teachers enjoy transferable skills that can give them valuable career flexibility and mobility.

            To be in the field of teaching requires dedication and perseverance. Therefore, teaching profession should not be taken for granted. You should always see to it that through teaching, you are sharing or imparting some of your knowledge to your students. They can apply this knowledge in their course of life. Your main reason for taking up an education degree should be because of a good, personal purpose. However, having a purpose is not enough. These purposes should serve as a guide and influence on the way of your teaching and all of your actions. Therefore, for most (effective) teachers, they value teaching not because of its benefits (monetary, etc.) to them, but simply because of their self-fulfillment in this field, the way they are able to share in the role of molding the youth, the future of the next generation.     

 

Report on an external classroom observation

Report on an External Classroom Observation

 

 

English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)

Usually, the programs serving ESOL students in public schools include (a) immersion, (b) submersion, and (c) sheltered instruction. Occasionally, bilingual education programs are an option in which general education teachers are responsible for teaching limited English proficient (LEP) students in their classrooms on a daily basis. The conducted classroom observation was undertaken by examining the learning environment among five to eight year-old students of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) as funded by the government. These students who speak Spanish and Haitian Creole are primarily studying under the English curriculum as one of their second languages. The observed session is one of their daily one and a half hour sessions with an ESOL teacher. The students were engaged in a group art work activity in which evaluation of the occurring classroom management issues was facilitated.  

 

 

Observation Schedule

            Classrooms are exceptionally busy places since innumerable events in classrooms take place when teachers ask children questions, new concepts are explained, pupils talk to each other, some of those who misbehave are reprimanded, and others are ignored. But despite this fact, classroom observations has become more popular for systematic teacher appraisal and lesson evaluation, greater emphasis on developing the professional skills of initial trainees, or honing those of experienced practitioners, as well as for the increased interest in classroom processes by curriculum developers (1999).

 

Direct observation is the most common type of classroom observation practiced in the academe (2004). The applicability and reliability of utilizing direct observation has been equivocal, with  arguments claiming that classical psychometric concepts based on differences between persons are irrelevant to an assessment methodology that focuses on behavior and its variation within individuals (1977), while others claimed that the differences between traditional and behavioral assessment are primarily conceptual, not methodological, and as such reliability and validity considerations apply (1988). The two types of direct observation are the naturalistic or descriptive observation and the systematic observation.

 

The naturalistic observation is where the observer enters specific situations and observes the behavior of a targeted student with no predetermined behaviors in mind. Recording observations is conducted by keeping an anecdotal record of the behaviors that seem important in which complete description of behaviors and the context in which they occurred are summarized ( 2002). On the other hand, systematic direct observation is facilitated by introducing stimuli or treatment to the observed environment commonly referred to as test behaviors (2004). Contrary to the principles of naturalistic observation, systematic direct observation is characterized with the goals (1) to measure specific behaviors, (2) operationalization definition of the behaviors being observed, (3) undertake observation under standardized procedures and objective manner, (4) specific and careful selection of times and places for observation, and (5) standardized scoring and summarizing of data for reliability issues (, 2004).

 

The conducted external classroom observation was facilitated by using direct observation procedures following the framework of naturalistic descriptive observation of the behaviors of the students. This is in line with the surrounding issues and concepts that were evident based on the undertaken activity. Using direct naturalistic observation framework enabled the observer to accumulate data and information that were critically apparent in the managing the selected session for ESOL students. As such, in-depth and rich data were collected to describe in detail what transpired during the session taking into account all the possible relevant information with regards to issues on improving and accurately evaluating the teaching processes as well learning susceptibility of the students. Fortunately, the conducted observation elicited information that positive assessed the teaching process that was observed.    

 

The selected observation schedule was able to deliver valid information that support the teaching technique used by the ESOL instructor. However, direct naturalistic observation as an observation schedule was confronted with some limitations. This included the concerns on the capability of the observer to record all that transpired during the session in full detail. Data and information that escaped the observation skills of the observer proved detrimental to the overall assessment and evaluation of the observed classroom setting. Other than this particular challenge, everything that was observed was recorded by the observer in the most accurate and effective manner so as not to influence the quality of the collected data. 

 

 

Issues Surrounding the Observed Classroom Event 

According to  (1997) learning among children is ideal in a non-threatening, joyful environment. This promotes interaction in which hands-on activities that interests the children and enhances their background knowledge help to facilitate child-centered environment to facilitate more effective learning (1997). Giambo and Szecsi (2004) indicated that ESOL children involved in art activities learn the colors, shapes, names of tools, and verbs in which through their drawings, children can express feelings and thoughts for which they do not yet have the vocabulary in the second language. During the silent period, when children absorb the new language but do not yet speak, the teacher can use art for assessing children's comprehension.

 

However, art classes among children are cumbersome when it comes to issues on class management in which disciplined activities pertaining to education as well as behavior is a common concern among teachers. According to (1994) classroom management tops a list of twenty-eight categories that most influence learning. During the observation, it was evident that the ESOL teacher, despite the chaos inherent in using group art work as an ESOL teaching strategy among children, was able to inculcate the appropriate learning activities easily. The students were able to follow the instructions of the teacher on the proper handling of art materials from the start of the session until the time came when the students were required to clean their desks. Moreover, the children displayed how disciplined they are in following the directions of their teachers on the duration of their group work.   

 

 

Observation Schedule and Notes

(Put your name and contact information here)

 

Date:

Day/Time:

ESOL Teacher:

Class Section:

Number of Students:

School:

 

Notes and Comments:

            The class is currently engaged in art work. They were grouped into three in which drawing tools such as pencils, color pens, crayons, papers and paints were distributed by the ESOL teacher. The teacher is bilingual to better facilitate English language instruction to the students who speak Spanish. But the entirety of the class duration was facilitated by using English as the language mode. Directions and instructions were given in English as well as the identification and differentiation of naming the drawing tools and colors used by the students. At the end of the group work, the students were asked to present their drawings. They were told to explain what they drew and why they drew it.

           

            Evidently, the students, despite their difficulty and struggle in explaining their art work, were able to deliver their presentations successfully. It was likewise observed that the students were able to learn new English words relevant to the undertaken activity. The classroom environment was very informal in set up which enables the students to feel more comfortable during the class. It was observed that each of them enjoyed the class and the teaching technique of their instructor. In my opinion, teaching English through enjoyable activities like art classes and games help students to learn English in an enjoyable manner. I believe that the teaching method used by the teacher is very effective.

 

            Moreover, when all of the students were through presenting their art works, they were disciplined enough to know what to de next as they started cleaning up their drawing tables. The students collected the drawing tools and they were able to put together similar drawing instruments they used categorizing the things into drawing pencils, color pens, crayons and others. This clean up activity was guided by the instructions of the teacher. But it is worthy to take into account that the students were able to follow the instructions abruptly without so much noise as well as complaints. The students had a great day at their ESOL School.          

 

 

 

Curriculum theory

Education Reforms

 

            An education reform is the plan, movement which tries to make a systematic change in the educational practice or curriculum across the society and the community. (2006)

            There are a number of reforms over the past years that have taken place in the education system in the world. From the time of Plato until the modern times reforms in the curriculum of education have already shaped the society and the outcomes of the schooling from the pre-school level until the postgraduate level. The curriculum in education represents the political and social settlement between forces that seeks to shape the content, process and outcome of schooling.

            This paper discusses the statement in relation to curriculum reforms over the past decade. Moreover it discusses the caveats or warnings that must be placed on those reforms.

 

            Educational reforms has begun even during the time of Plato, wherein there is a huge debates on whether it is safe to teach the information and knowledge that were acquired during the pre-Christian era, to the Christian children. And during the late 19^th and the mid-20^th centuries, progressive reforms in education have taken place in Europe and America. There us the Child-Study by , the Transcendentalist education, the National Identity and the Dewey.

            Nowadays, according to  (2003) the educational reforms today are agreeable to the interest of the business community and view the students mainly as the future workers in the economy, the fundamental objective of educational reforms today is to prepare the young people to take the place of adults in the job market.

            In China, one of the most prominent education reforms happened during the Cultural Revolution. According to (2001) the Cultural Revolution was one of the major movements in the politics in China that had a huge impact in the field of education of the Chinese. He wrote that in the late 1965, the Communist leader  launched the Cultural Revolution in which he called all the young people in China to revive the spirit of revolution. Millions of teenagers, workers and commune members heed to the call of  and participated in the Cultural Revolution, and being the key component in the structure of the state Education became one of the first targets of attacks. All forms of the old textbooks, literature, music, plays and movies were banned. And during that time education was perceived to be oppressive and unfavourable to the working class and the children. And in 1968 the reformed school curriculum in China was implemented with the following features:

• It played down the systematic teaching of theory and taught ideas and concepts that were significant in the industrial and agricultural work.
• The academic excellence of the students were no longer rewarded and admired in the classroom.
• The learning in the classroom must be combined with working in the fields.
• Entrance examination was eliminated.
• The graduates of school were sent to work in factories or the farm and from there they are chosen to enter the university.
• The length of pre-tertiary education was cut from 12 years to 10 years.

And because of that the schools faced a number of issues and problems such as teachers have a hard time adjusting to the new form of education system as well as, attracting students to go back to schools. The teaching education was demoralized during that time and the textbooks were full of political jargons rather than lessons that will enhance the capabilities of the students.

This is a classic example wherein the political and social forces shaped the content and process of the education, in which it has gone wrong. The outcome of the reform in the educational system in China have brought negative effects rather than positive ones, students did not want to go to school because it did not provide them any opportunities in the society in the near future. The statement “a curriculum represent a social and political settlement between two competing forces that seeks to shape the content, process and outcome of the schooling” is not an actual generalisation because in the case of the educational reform in China there are only one force that seek to shape and the outcome of schooling in which the consequences were rather negative than positive. The case of education reform in China serves as a warning to societies wherein only one person dictates what is best for the society especially in terms of education.

      Another reform that takes place in the Chinese societies apart from the mainland China is decentralization of Education, according to (2005), decentralization is a process wherein the authority and decision-making are transferred from higher to lower units of the governance, a number of governments view decentralization as a way to enhance and improve the efficiency of the administration of the school, and effectiveness and quality of education. In Hong Kong and Singapore education reforms were implemented in order to strengthen the management and administration of the schools and university. It still shows that even though the governance of the school is already held by the lower units in the government the state still plays a huge role in shaping the policy of education. In the case of Taiwan, decentralization aims to empower the authorities of the local education, the schools, and the teachers and the free market of education. Decentralization is an effective reform in education because it provides efficiency in this sector, and it has been proven in the case of Singapore wherein the country’s educational system is the number one in the world. However, the results of decentralization may differ from country to country depending on the extent and scope of the issues and problems of education.

            According to  (1997) the decision-making in decentralizing the education system especially of the local school will not have an outcome of responsiveness in the needs of the local students unless the school have the capacity to respond to these need, and the capacity can be provided in these three ways:

• Having a central unit of administration at the district level provide chosen services to the schools.
• The schools might be provided the resources that are enough to allow the school-site councils to deal with the challenges.
• The schools might be given the freedom and resources to buy the needed services.

Just like in the first education reform that was discussed earlier, the statement cannot also be generalised like in these case wherein there are no competing forces in order to implement the changes instead the people that are involved agreed on the changes. But contrary to the first reform in China, this reform has positive outcomes than the other. The quality of education is world-class, even countries like the United States is looking at this reform. However, reforms also come with a warning, in which not all societies can emulate this form of reform. A country cannot just copy a reform and applied it in their own country without reviewing the pros and cons.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Issue of Education Planning and Finance

INTRODUCTION

            As of July 2006, it is estimated that there are more than 1.3 billion people in China, and in 2001 an approximated 10% of their people are below the poverty line. (2006). This statistics has dire implications for the quality of education that members of the lower classes receive from their country, and can ultimately hinder the development of China’s economy. Generally, though, China is being regarded as an example in following the spirit of the World Bank’s 1974 education sector recommendations. Economist reiterated when he wrote at the end of the decade that China’s educational system comes closest to the World Bank’s model program for a developing country ( 2000). The essential features of the Chinese system in this respect were a curriculum designed to meet the needs of a mass clientele; the widely promoted goal of ten-year universal schooling; decentralised local administration; and tertiary level selection aimed at minimising educational discrimination against the poor. Upon entering the 21^st century, China has been adhering to the implementation of strategy of national rejuvenation through education and the scales of various types of education at different levels in the country have kept on expanding, and education opportunities have risen notably. However, there are still deficiencies to the educational system of China which this paper will present and propose a solution to solving the major public concerns regarding this issue.

 

PRESENT SITUATION IN MAINLAND CHINA

            The People's Republic of China Compulsory Education Law, which took effect July 1, 1986, established requirements and deadlines for attaining universal education tailored to local conditions and guaranteed school-age children the right to receive at least nine-year education (six year primary education and three years secondary education). The compulsory education law divided mainland China into three categories: (1) cities and economically developed areas in coastal provinces and a small number of developed areas in the hinterland; (2) towns and villages with medium development; and (3) economically backward areas. The third category, economically backward (rural) areas (around 25% of mainland China's population), is the focus of this paper. It is in these areas that China’s poor are concentrated, and according to the aforementioned law, provincial-level authorities were to popularize basic education without a timetable and at various levels according to local economic development, though the state would "do its best" to support educational development. The state also would assist education in minority nationality areas. In the past, rural areas, which lacked a standardized and universal primary education system, had produced generations of illiterates; only 60% of their primary school graduates had met established standards ( 2004). The stakeholders of the current policy of China with regards to educating the poor are the poor people of China, the teachers, school administrators, the government, who has a hand on the policies which would alleviate the educational plight of the poor masses of China.

PUBLIC CONCERNS

            The public’s main concern that a significant gap in wealth between China’s poor and the rest of the country at large could prove detrimental to the quality of education that the former sector of China’s society receive which would consequently affect the development of the nation’s economy had the Chinese government constantly trying to provide comprehensive education for the poor population of the country. Many of the challenges of providing universal, high quality public education to rural children are related to difficult policy choices associated with reform of the government’s fiscal system. To provide stronger incentives for local government leaders to generate more revenue and to shed their own expenditure responsibilities that cannot be met, governments at all administrative levels have passed the buck downward, decentralizing government expenditure responsibilities as well as claims on government revenue (1996).

The scenario has significantly reduced the amount of resource transfers from richer to poorer regions, increasing inequities in public spending. In poor areas, the lack of government resources has put great strain on the ability of local communities to finance high-quality public education. In such areas, many teachers do not even receive wage payments on time. Late wage payments hurt morale and force some teachers to spend time earning incomes from other sources, thus the quality of education that the students receive decline considerably (2000). Research in the matter found that children in more socio-economically disadvantaged environments tend to have a lower level of engagement with schooling, measured in terms of their own reported educational aspirations, academic confidence, industriousness, and degree of alienation (2006).

ACQUISITION, ALLOCATION AND UTILISATION OF RESOURCES

            The discussed concern has grave connotations for the quality of education being offered to the poor people of China. As presented in the public’s concern, the rising educational enrolment across the poor population of China attests to the success of earlier policy campaigns that focused on getting poor children into school. On the foundation of this accomplishment, the next critical priority for the educational system is to improve the quality of education through proper acquisition, allocation and utilisation of resources for educating them. The 1995 Education Law stipulated that all citizens have an equal opportunity for a quality education and in 1999, following the Third National Working Conference on Education, the State Council issued “Decisions on Deepening the Educational Reform and Improving Quality-Oriented Education” and later approved “The Action Plan to Revitalize Education Toward the 21^st Century,” prepared by the Ministry of Education (1998). These documents strongly emphasize the importance of increasing the quality of schooling experiences, especially the need to promote educational quality in poor regions.

There are three contrasting perspectives to help understand and explain the behaviours of those responsible for acquiring, allocating and utilising resources for the education of the poor (1998). The first is a rational model approach, which assumes that administrators and others involved in the processes act in a logical fashion to improve the educational services to the poor. The second approach is a bureaucratic organization model, which assumes that resource acquisition, allocation and utilisation decisions are based on existing standard operating procedures and reflect the organization's primary concern with limiting and controlling changes to the present operation. The third approach is a political economy model, which assumes that persons involved in the processes operate in a bureaucracy in which ‘individuals try to maximize their own welfare (or benefits) within the context of the institutional or organizational reward structure they face’ ( 1982).

These three approaches or perspectives could be linked to the individual, government and public view of the issue. The political economy approach is that adopted by individuals, which normally assumes that whoever is in charge of the three processes in discussion is acting in a politically-motivated manner, or in the interest of not the general public, but of the person involved. Such is that there is the presence of public dissatisfaction on the extent of efforts that the Chinese government is exerting over the improvement of the delivery of educational services to the poor. The government, naturally, have a say on this. They adopt the bureaucratic organization model, which basically says that the government is not as much freedom to do what they like with to improve the current system due to the complexities of the system itself. On the part of the government, changes could not be implemented just that. Certain existing standard operating procedures have to be followed before any drastic action could be done on the subject, or any other issue, for that matter. The public, as the collective individual, has rational model approach to the three processes. Typically, the public assumes that the goals of those in power to implement improvements to the current system are to improve student learning, usually measurable cognitive achievement, and behave in a rational manner when they make decisions or take actions designed to enhance the outcomes. At a minimum, the public acting rationally expects those in authority to consider outcomes and acquire, allocate and utilise resources in a way that they believe will improve student learning in the sector of the poor population of China.

In order to determine if resources are being allocated and distributed in a fair manner, production function analysis can be utilized to determine which inputs produce the most-efficient and most-effective results (2006). The production function approach relies on the assumption that the production process being assessed operates with what is called technical efficiency. Technical efficiency assumes that all people with discretion over production strive to produce the maximum level of output possible from a set of given inputs (1981). An additional assumption of the technical efficiency is that all persons striving for outcomes attempt the pursuit of the same specific goals. However, various professionals within the educational system have different ideas regarding the inputs and outcomes of education. This multiplicity of goals contributes to one of the major criticisms of public education: that there are no clearly defined goals and objectives. Brown and Saks (1981) described schooling "as a process in which student time and teacher time are combined with other resources to produce an output called learning" (p. 219). The generality and vagueness of this statement illustrates the problem of applying specific production-type criteria to education. Consequently technical efficiency is difficult to accomplish in the educational realm.

PROPOSAL IN MEETING PUBLIC CONCERNS

            In reference to the concerns of the public regarding the state of providing education to the poor population of China, following is a scheme to meet and solve them. One inescapable conclusion in this paper is that resource acquisition, allocation and utilisation in schools, especially those for the poor, is rarely controlled by even rudimentary attempts at rationally linking educational goals with pedagogical means. Despite numerous sophisticated research and evaluation work documenting more- and less-effective strategies for pursuing educational program goals and overcoming poor students’ problems, school- and district-level resource allocation continues to be dominated by political power and bureaucratic routines. In China, as elsewhere, greater coverage and and more effective basic education would be the education sector’s most significant contribution toward alleviating poverty.

 

            The key idea is developed to provide a common frame of reference for interpreting the dynamics of resource allocation. Development of this idea began with the recognition that the dynamics of acquisition, allocation and utilisation decision making are shaped by political and professional conflicts over the applicability of competing economic conceptions of the legitimate goals of education and over the means of attaining those goals. The need to broaden the coverage of basic education among the poor and improve its quality, including the targeted goal of universalizing elementary education, means more funding is needed. To this end, the main proposal of this scheme is to increase public spending on education, and the government is likely to have to provide most of this funding. Although there is some truth to the claim that educational services improvement can be accomplished by using current resources more efficiently, public policy is not a zero-sum game. Literal reallocation of resources from one function to another rarely happens; new resources are found, not simply redeployed. Given the importance of education in reducing poverty and the state’s current fiscal problems, they will need to reduce implicit and explicit subsidies and find new revenues. The Chinese Government will also need to expand its role in education in view of the low level of resources that many state governments devote to primary education and the large number of children not enrolled in schools. There is also a need to build, in states and districts, the capacity to plan and manage education more effectively and the need for research to identify more cost-effective strategies. These options for center and state governments will have to be considered in the broader context of administrative decentralization and changing center-state fiscal relationships.

Official commitment expressed in resource acquisition, allocation and utilisation, parental demand that their children be educated, and civic cooperation in supporting schools, together with policies and strategies for developing primary education that responds to the local environment, founded on a vision for effective and appropriate education and targets the most disadvantaged groups are key measures required for improving the quality of education being offered to the poor population of China. Furthermore, successful programmes are marked by a clearly articulated vision of a well functioning school, which incorporates expectations about children’s learning and the anticipated role of teachers. The vision needs to be clear enough to allow the parents and communities to define the objectives while remaining flexible enough for them to pursue local needs. Finally, the resources that are applied to improving primary education need to be targeted to those groups in the population who are most in need of support. This means that program designs need to include special provisions for girls, scheduled tribes, scheduled castes, children with disabilities, and working children, and with an effective component of early childhood development. These provisions need to be followed through locally with planning and implementation processes that facilitate appropriate lending. Many programs already do this, and their experience can be built on. The government has an important role to play in seeing that its resources respond to these differential needs among China areas, and should consider ways to better involve private schools in meeting the demand for primary education in ways that enhance the use of public and private resources for the disadvantaged.

The concept of human capital entered mainstream academic inquiry in the early 1960s through the work of   (1993), when they formalized a theory presenting education as one of many investment alternatives individuals may choose to obtain future benefits. One assumption within human capital theory is that labor market earnings increase for individuals with more education because schools increase the productive skills of students. The key assumption of human capital theory is that schooling raises earnings and productivity mainly by providing knowledge, skills and a way of analyzing problems (1993). In line with this theory, it is advocated that the poor receive better quality of education that they are receiving now in order to alleviate their economic status in life. What was previously proposed as a scheme to indeed improve the quality of their education would work for the sole reason that the government knows that a large portion of their population who are either uneducated or poorly schooled will not contribute to the benefit of the country as a whole. Therefore, even without much pushing from the public, the government is already doing what it could to increase public spending in the education of the poor sector.

Increasingly, people are also actually are trying to do something about improving educational productivity. In large part, this is happening because of mounting pressure for significant action. Though there have been signs of increasing productivity, the costs of operating public schools and colleges for the poor have been soaring. Thus, the politics of educational productivity revolves around the contest over whose conceptions of efficiency and equity in Chinese schooling will prevail and, consequently, who will benefit and who will lose in resource acquisition, allocation, utilisation and decision making in the structure, operation, and outcomes of the educational process for the poor. This is where the effectiveness of the scheme would come forward. With what the drive to increase the productivity of educational outcomes, the need is felt most by the government for obvious economic reasons that will benefit China collectively.

Resource acquisition, allocation and utilisation in the education of the poor are complex activities; hence the effectiveness and efficiency of alternative means of pursuing specified goals will remain uncertain and context sensitive. Children respond very differently to the same instructional programs, complicating selection of the most-appropriate pedagogical techniques. New techniques are constantly being developed, and new research evidence requires regular reappraisal of previously accepted instructional strategies. The existence of continued disagreement about both educational goals and the means of realizing those goals make it essential that educational leaders and policymakers provide mechanisms of conflict management that will permit development of stable school operations in the midst of continuing disagreement and conflict. The Chinese leadership appears committed to reducing glaring inequities as seen in the promise of the Develop the West campaign, and realizes that education and human-resource development should be a top priority for national development. New technologies offer intriguing but uncharted possibilities for economic and educational development, and reform initiatives and experiments are going forward at a furious pace. Whether the new strategies will be enough to change the life trajectories of China’s rural children, especially those living in poverty, remains an open question. The stakes couldn’t be higher.

The effect of Effective teaching strategies of Behaviour in the classroom

The Effect of Effective Teaching Strategies to Classroom Behavior

 

Introduction

            Education plays a very important role in the learning process of every individual in the society. It is the foundation of understanding and knowledge, and serves as a basis for the success of each individual. In relation to this is the contribution of teachers in the building blocks of education. Teachers, alongside academic institutions are responsible for the effective education. With this, teachers must be equipped with a variety of effective teaching strategies or techniques to encourage many students to listen and become involved in the lessons, for effective teaching serves as the basis for effective learning, contributes to the efficient gathering of knowledge, and develops understanding. This paper aims to discuss the effective teaching strategies and their effects to classroom behavior.

 

Teaching Strategies and Its Effects

            A number of teaching strategies are present to help students take more responsibility for their own learning and enhance the process of teaching for learning. Some of these strategies include lecture, active learning, critical thinking, discussion, cooperative learning, and writing (2006).

Lecture – This method is effective when used with active learning and other teaching strategies. It has many advantages, particularly in large classrooms and can be effective in meeting instructional goals (2006). Its effects to classroom behavior are varied, depending on the response of students to the lecture of the instructor. For this strategy to become effective, the instructor must make sure to use stimulating visual aids, with or without the use of advanced technology. As an effect, many students would become more interested in listening to the discussion and become more participative. Another way is to make the discussion more interactive.

 

Active Learning – It has been reported that it is defined as learning environments that allow students to talk, listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities (2006). As an effect, the students can be more involved with their lessons, for hands on activities are helpful in the retention of lessons in the memory. With the help of small group discussions, the students can also interact with their peers, which foster a good learning environment.

 

Critical Thinking – This skillful, responsible thinking facilitates good judgment because it relies upon criteria, is self-correcting, and is sensitive to context ( 2006). When implemented, the students would develop their focusing skills, information gathering, referencing, organizing, analyzing, integrating and evaluation (2006).  

 

Discussion – It is good to create a non-threatening, interactive learning environment that allows for the free exchange of ideas (2006). An important factor is raising stimulating questions, such as higher cognitive ones (2001). They are defined as those which the student to mentally manipulate bits of information previously learned to create an answer or to support an answer with logically reasoned evidence (2001). Asking cognitive types of questions stimulate the thinking abilities of the students, and make the discussion livelier. The students become exposed and open to new ideas from the instructor and their peers, and even gather information regarding the topic to be discussed. This does not only motivate the students to participate in class, but also fosters a creative and innovative learning experience.

 

Cooperative Learning – This is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal, stressing the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process (2006). Working together involves differences in many aspects. From these differences, the idea of differentiated instruction applies. Differentiated instruction is an approach to teaching and learning so that students have multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas (Hall 1999). With this strategy, the students can be more receptive to ideas, despite their differences with one another, such as their diversity in culture, race, religion, age and gender.

 

Writing – This strategy includes writing across the curriculum, critical thinking, technology and computers, note taking, and personal expression (2006). Through writing, the students can express themselves, express their ideas regarding certain topics and improve their vocabulary and grammar skills. With the use of this technique, the students and the instructor can be open to one another through paper, which is helpful for the institution itself in developing their writing capabilities. This would not only enhance the students, but also give them the chance to display their talents. The effect of writing to classroom behavior is varied, however, through writing, the instructor can assess the skill of his or her students and with this assessment, the instructor can make necessary actions to contribute to their improvement.

 

Conclusion

            Effective teaching strategies are the foundation of effective learning in a classroom environment. However, one teaching strategy is not enough to achieve great learning. In addition, differences in learning must also be taken into consideration to make sure that all of the students get the equal opportunity for obtaining knowledge. (1996) emphasizes that a method appropriate for most students may be ineffective for other students who could learn more easily with a different approach. This makes methods of teaching, ways of representing information, and personality characteristics of teachers affecting learning and affect different learners differently (1996). Learning goes hand in hand with teaching, so strategies are important in the learning process.

EDUCATION

WORKING CLASS UNDERACHIEVEMENT IN EDUCATION

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

            Education has been traditionally regarded as the most precious possession that any individual can gain in his or her lifetime. Many believe that it is the most effective way in the battle against ignorance, social exclusion and poverty.  Educated people are well-equipped with the necessary competencies that would direct them in different societal endeavors.

 

            The emphasis put on education as a powerful weapon to achieve individual dignity is evident in state policies and social agenda. National and state measures in ensuring the effectivity of education come in the form of additional subsidy to schools and universities, increased salary to instructors, more educational materials to accommodate any increase in school enrolment, comprehensive and extensive curriculum, consistent monitoring and improvement of educational standards and strategies against academic underachievement. According to  and  (2003) underachievement in schools has been given considerable attention in recent years. The debates on underachievement have changed somewhat over the years, but there is one constant feature, namely that at any given time there is concern that one group of pupils or another is failing to achieve its potential. Sometimes the concern is about the achievement of particular social classes, sometimes about boys, sometimes about those from particular ethnic groups, sometimes about those who are from very disadvantaged backgrounds, and so on. Since the advent of the Labour government in 1997 the issue about those who are at risk of 'social exclusion' particularly as a result of poverty has been another concern ().

 

 

VIEWS AND CRITICAL COMMENTS ON WORKING CLASS UNDERACHIEVEMENT

 

 

            Generally, underachievement is described as "a discrepancy between potential (what a student ought to be able to do) and actual performance (what a student is actually demonstrating) (, 2002, ).  and  (2003) identified three related issues that are associated with achievement in school: social class, poverty and education levels of parents (). Social class has been shown to have a significant effect on educational outcomes and future life chances despite high educational achievement.  Working class pupils are less likely to achieve five A to C passes at General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) than their middle class peers and are less likely to go on to higher education.  Further, they are also less likely to attend a popular or successful school and more likely to be excluded from school by peers or to self-exclude. Also, working class single parents are particularly disadvantaged in the education system and are often represented as failing to provide adequate support for their children ( and , 2005, ).  It is suggested that the value orientations of parents towards their children’s education is a significant factor in educational achievement. Some authors say that the value system of the working class acts as a hindrance to their education advancement as they place a lower value on educational success, high occupational status and opportunities for personal advancement through education. The concern about social class and school achievement or underachievement encourages a large number of interpretations based mainly around the idea that a society with a highly-competitive, highly-differentiated, education system dominated by "middle class norms, values, attitudes, beliefs and ideologies" lays a standard wherein success and achievement is based on how easy and effective the children can adapt to the school environment and the beliefs/attitudes of their teachers. This idea puts forward four notions: schools are middle class institutions; learning involves a process of conforming to middle class norms and accepting middle class values relating to learning, teaching, knowledge, etc; and the pupil must immerse themselves in the culture of the school to achieve learning. The children’s successful adaptation is not a matter of personal effort but rather a socialization process initiated by parents within their home and family through parental attitudes and motivations aimed at socializing children into the norms and values of the middle class (, 2006).  and  (2003) suggested that it should not be assumed that children from lower socio-economic families have lower performance because of their status. Research indicates that teacher expectations appear to be lower for children from working class backgrounds and teachers may be more likely to label children from certain social backgrounds as disruptive. In some cases school policies and practices may also be part of the problem. Behavior-management schemes can be put in place to help create an environment where pupils and staff feel secure ().

            The second reason identified revolves around poverty and material deprivation as a factor in educational underachievement. The most basic premise of this reason asserts that the material conditions of an individual's home in particular and cultural background could explain differential educational achievement. The relationship between an individual's material conditions of life and their relative academic performance can be established in terms of poor diet, lack of privacy in the home, lack of school resources, stigma of poverty and the issue of working student. Poverty basically connotes insufficient food on the table for the family. Recent research has found out that poor diet, malnutrition, and poverty have significant consequence on fetal and brain development during pregnancy. Mothers who come from impoverished homes and are not getting the sufficient amount of food and vitamin intake during pregnancy are likely to give birth to malnourished and mentally-insufficient children. Poor diet also leads to tiredness, physical weakness, lack of concentration and others. A study revealed that children whose vitamin intake increased also increased their IQ score by a few percentage points. Secondly, poor homes do not usually have an adequate and conducive place for learning. Working class homes mostly composed of cramped spaces and the presence of study room for the children is hardly a possibility. One consequence of this might be an inability for the children to study within the home. Thirdly, impoverished families cannot usually afford personal educational resources like books, computers etc. to supplement children’s learning resources provided by the schools. These things are regarded as second priority as family income becomes more concentrated on daily living. Fourthly, the stigma of poverty makes working class children vulnerable to teasing and bullying in school. The consequences lie mainly on the psychological and behavioral components as children may feel alienated and discriminated upon. Children who feel that they are outcasts do not have the necessary motivation to do well in academic activities. Lastly, working class children feel the urge to supplement family income in order to augment sources for daily expenses and also have personal money for their needs. The need to work to bring money into the home distorts the child’s schedule and leaves less time available for homework since the child may be tired after working before or after school (, 2006).

            The last reason is linked to the fact that social class is somehow influenced by the level of education obtained by parents. Progress in school requires parental involvement where parents are part of the children’s learning and take cognizance of their concerns ( and , 2003, ).  Parents from different social classes vary in the way they raise their children, thus the concept of parental involvement poses three gaps that should be addressed in order to tackle school underachievement of working class students. The first gap is the “reading gap” which emphasizes the importance of teaching children the value of reading. It is stated that young children of educated parents are read to more consistently and are encouraged to read more to themselves when they are older. Most children whose parents have college degrees are read to daily before they begin kindergarten, but few children whose parents have only a high school diploma or less benefit from daily reading. Children who see parents read to solve their own problems or for entertainment are more likely to want to read themselves. Parents who bring home reading materials from work demonstrate by example to children that reading is not a segmented burden but a seamless activity that bridges work and leisure. Parents who read to children but do not read for themselves send a different message. Furthermore, more educated parents read aloud differently. When working-class parents read aloud, they are more likely to tell children to pay attention without interruptions or to sound out words or name letters. When they ask children about a story, the questions are more likely to be factual, asking for names of objects or memory of events. Middle-class parents are more likely to read aloud to have fun, to start conversations, or as an entree to the world outside.  They ask questions that are creative, interpretive or connective. An international reading survey of 15-year-olds, conducted in 2000, found a strong relationship in almost every nation between parental occupation and student literacy. The gap between the literacy of children of the highest-status workers (such as doctors, professors, and lawyers) and the lowest-status workers (such as waiters and waitresses, taxi drivers, and mechanics) was great in the United Kingdom than it was in the United States. The value of reading taught in childhood extends in the school. Children who have read many books and stories at a young age would have an easier time recognizing some words. Society should find ways to help lower-class children enter school having the same familiarity with books as middle-class children have. This requires rethinking the institutional settings in which early childhood care beginning in infancy is provided. The second gap is the “conversation gap”. Conversations facilitated by parents that explain events in the broader world to children make it possible for children to develop vocabularies and become familiar with contexts for reading in school. Educated parents are more likely to engage in such talk and to begin it with infants and toddlers, conducting pretend conversations long before infants can understand the language. Soon after middle-class children become verbal, their parents typically draw them into adult conversations so the children can practice expressing their own opinions. Being included in adult conversations this early develops a sense of entitlement in children; they feel comfortable addressing adults as equals and without deference. Children who ask for reasons, rather than accepting assertions on adult authority, develop intellectual skills upon which later academic success in school will rely. Certainly, some lower-class children have such skills and some middle-class children lack them. But, on average, a sense of entitlement is based on one's social class.  Also, parents whose professional occupations entail authority and responsibility typically believe more strongly that they can affect their environments and solve problems. They naturally express and demonstrate assertive and problem-solving personality traits at home when they design activities in which children figure out solutions for themselves. When middle-class parents give orders, the parents are more likely to explain why the rules are reasonable.  On the other hand, parents whose jobs entail following orders or doing routine tasks show less sense of efficacy. They are less likely to encourage their children to negotiate over clothing or food and more likely to instruct them by giving directions without extended discussion.  The last gap is the “role model gap” which views parents as setting examples of behavior and traits to their children. This concept explains that middle-class professional parents tend to associate with, and be friends with, similarly educated professionals. Working-class parents have fewer professional friends. If parents and their friends perform jobs requiring little academic skill, their children's images of their own futures are influenced. On average, these children must struggle harder to motivate themselves to achieve than children who assume, on the basis of their parents' social circle, that the only roles are doctor, lawyer, teacher, social worker, manager, administrator, or businessperson.  Going to college is an important decision and parental support plays a role in it. While disadvantaged students say they plan to go to college, they do not feel as much parental, community, or peer pressure to take the courses or to get the grades they need to become more attractive to college admission offices. Lower-class parents say they expect children to get good grades, but they are less likely to enforce these expectations, for example with rewards or punishments. Teachers and counselors can stress doing well in school to lower-class children, but such lessons compete with children's own self-images, formed early in life and reinforced daily at home (, 2006).

 

 

REFERENCES

 

 

Emerging model of classroom management

Classroom management skills have been a requirement for educators with the advent of difficulties created in administering and fostering an environment for learning. While these problems, a growing literature seeking to explore, analyze and explain the dynamics of classroom relationships has emerged.

 (1999) in his book Classroom Management: Sound Theory and Effective Practice, he posited the urgent need to maintain discipline in the classroom after the annual on the public's attitudes toward public schools, espoused that the almost three decades identified lack of discipline has been one of the biggest problems in public schools. In fact, the journal has singled out lack of discipline as the number one problem more often than any other. In fact, discipline is so crucial, so basic to everything else in the classroom that most educators agree: it is the one thing that makes or breaks teachers. With the magnitude of this problem, suggested the need to recognize the importance to teachers of having sound theory and using effective practices when it comes to classroom management. This book argues, further, that discipline skills can be taught, but that training in this critical area is inadequate.

As a result of the struggle to find an immediate solution to this dilemma, (1999) in his article Social Discipline advocated the use of an optimistic approach in reviewing this predicament. The Social Discipline Model by  emphasizes equality, respect, cooperation, and self-discipline.  While this approach is being challenged by models such as the “Take-charge approach” and the more aggressive models in dealing with discipline. This model nonetheless contributes on its sensitivity on the mutual cooperation of the teachers and the students alike in solving this predicament.

Creating and maintaining an orderly, productive classroom environment has long been viewed as one of the essential elements in teaching competence. Not only is there little argument as to the importance of these elements from the common sense point of view, but research has also shown that a number of management variables are also correlated with pupil achievement. (1985) validated principles of classroom organization and management shown in correlational research to be related to management effectiveness in secondary classrooms and assessed the possibility of training in classroom management techniques to provide additional skills to teachers who had already been trained in a statewide instructional skills program. Results indicated that district personnel could do training and observations, and the trained group exceeded the control group on both management skills and student task engagement.

While research has supported the importance of classroom management as a necessary condition for effective teaching, studies, which have sought to train teachers in principles of effective classroom management derived from research, are rare (1985). Those that have been conducted indicate that recommendations and suggestions for teachers aimed at planning rules and procedures ahead of time, presenting these to students along with expectations for appropriate behavior, maintaining a systematic approach through monitoring student academic work and behavior, and providing feedback to students among other things, can result in improved student task engagement, less inappropriate student behavior, and smoother instructional activities when compared with a control group without such training.

While research on classroom management and effective teaching has progressed (1985) there has been at the same time interest from practitioners in using these results in in-service and pre-service teacher training. In several instances, this interest has been both statewide and nationwide through various divisions of state education agencies, district and regional agencies, and teachers' unions.

Further,  (1989) suggested the evaluation of student performance by schools and teachers to permeate the educational process. Although this is particularly apparent during times such as the present, when schools are under increased pressure for greater accountability and improved performance, the pressure on and interest in evaluation processes is nothing new (1989). presented a model of the evaluation process that is relatively simple yet sufficiently robust to permit discussion of most of the major elements of evaluation processes for students in schools and classrooms. Each of the stages of the model suggests features of the evaluation process that must be attended to by evaluators and that have an impact on students.

Behavior modification assumes that observable and measurable behaviors are good targets for change. All behavior follows a set of consistent rules. Methods can be developed for defining, observing, and measuring behaviors, as well as designing effective interventions. Behavior modification techniques never fail ( 1985). Rather, they are either applied inefficiently or inconsistently, which leads to less than desired change. All behavior is maintained, changed, or shaped by the consequences of that behavior.

All children function more effectively under the right set of consequences. “Reinforcers” are consequences that strengthen behavior and “punishments” are consequences that weaken behavior. Students' behaviors are managed and changed by these consequences of classroom behavior ( 1989). Consequences of behavior are directly related to the events that either come immediately before or after them. To manage behavior through consequences they suggest that the problem must be defined, usually by count or description, design a way to change the behavior, identify an effective reinforcer, and apply the reinforcer consistently to shape or change behavior.

The effective use of behavioral and cognitive strategies in the classroom may appear daunting even to experienced teachers. However, changing the teacher’s behavior and strategies is often the most efficient and effective means of improving all types of classroom behaviors, both disruptive and nondisruptive. The building block of emotions and behavior likely contains the largest and most diverse set of problems encountered in the classroom. Problems of emotions and behavior can be effectively managed and changed in the classroom by first understanding the problems and seeing the world through the eyes of the preschool students, and, by then developing and using a set of intervention strategies on a regular basis (1999)

The development of behavior modification in the classroom shares much in common with other areas of behavior modification application. Paralleling the development of behavior modification in the field of mental health (1999) many early classroom studies were directed toward the reduction of 'noxious' behaviors. The elimination of disruptive unpermitted, out-of-seat, and other behaviors that interfered with ongoing classroom routines were frequently targeted for change. It appeared that educators eagerly embraced procedures that would ease their difficulties in managing students who interfered with classroom learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Career Development

Career Development: a Background Paper for Brisbane School of Distance Education

 

INTRODUCTION

            For learning is a continuous lifetime process, individuals always want to gain knowledge of something innovative that will make them better, rational and worthy persons. To complement with the dynamic changes of the society and provide the high-end demands of daily life, every individual who thirst for knowledge of information needs superior studies in order to sustain such changes and demands. The emergence of high technology has brought changes to the society. These technological advancements have brought people especially those in the business world to utilise a strategy that would be helpful in enhancing the business value of any organization (1999). The intricacies of achieving business achievement through increased efficiency, effectiveness and competitiveness, combined with innovative applications of IT, has heightened the awareness of both IT and business managers towards more strategically oriented approaches for planning and management ( 1993).

While it is true that with the fast paced and unprecedented development of the workplace, every learning organisation must grow in correspondence with the changes taking place (1998; 1995; 1996). It could also be deemed that careers do change. With the dynamic stages of globalization and world convergence, every person is obliged to deal with the demands of living. In order for an organisation or industry to be more competitive in the marketplace, the administration must always consider the use of a management system and strategy that would sustain the capability, strength and competitive position (2000;2003). Industries which consider changes with their management system or any other critical aspects of their business operation are those industries which are aware of the positive benefits that these changes may bring (1998). Hence, the emergence of effective career management is vital and goes hand in hand with career development.

This paper discusses the concept of career development as applied to Brisbane School of Distance Education particularly focusing on the students’ perspective. Specifically, it argues that the career development process as well as program for students needs constant improvement and intensification through the following considerations:     

·                     improved and integrated curriculum

·                     more specialized training and orientation

·                     “theoretical teaching but practical application” policy

·                     easy access to guidance and counselling services

·                     updated sources of information for lessons and accessibility

·                     enhanced communication lines and linkages

·                     increase of student services

To fully understand the concept of career development and its offered services, a brief theoretical discussion is included. After identifying the needs for career development, implications, benefits as well as challenges are recognized and taken in hand. A concluding section collectively draws the central idea.

 

Career Development

            For the past decades, it has been figured out by experts to plan and design careers. Hence, career management and development was innovatively introduced to serve as the blueprint for success. As applied to an organisational level, it is the key to achieve goals of ensuring the skills and competencies of people for future employment and management of new work and life realities (1995). For organisations need people who are multitalented, effective in managing changes, and adaptive to new organisational directions, career management serves as the key for individual and organisational development.

            (2000) argued that the term “management”. The term has been traditionally used but it seemed to be problematic when applied to careers. It may entail a degree of control over career development that is unrealistic in today’s climate of unprecedented organizational change. Although the terms career development and career management are used somewhat interchangeably in career-related literature, in the present study the term “career management” is preferred as it tends to emphasize an active, purposeful approach. However, the interconnectedness of the two synonymous terms is both vital. In an organizational perspective, the application of such concepts is equivalent to the nature of the organizational success.

Career development describes the structure and longitudinal nature of career behaviour, as well as the psychological, cultural, economic, and political influences that involvement strategies might transform in order to facilitate more positive and purposeful career behaviour than would likely occur randomly (1990). Furthermore, agility, strength, precise movement and the ability to deal with continuous change are key attributes in career development (2000).

In this case, the target of the career development program is the students. In the business setting, developing effective workforce is dependent to the ability of the human resources to grasp and understand instructions. This ability is rooted to the learning experience of the person. Thus, before embarking to the professional world, every person must be fully equipped with the needed essentials to be productive and competitive worker. The most basic starting point of every professional is his/her academic institution and the overall quality of experience acquired during the study period. The school management should always bear in mind that they are accountable for the growth and development of their students particularly in their future careers. In here, students must be given a chance to develop their personalities, abilities, and other aspects helpful in their career development, not only for the advantages that they can get for themselves but also for the organisation. One of the obligations of the an organisation, specifically the management is to be able understand that the primary goal of career development is to help employees analyze their abilities, skills, and interests to better match personnel needs for growth and development to the needs of the organisation (1997). Secondly, the company must be able to identify the factors in maintaining a successful career development program. There are three types of planning which relates to career development: Broad Life Planning, Development Planning and the Performance Planning (1997). The organisation should incorporate each of these into the career development program. Moreover, the management of the company should be able to identify their general obligations in the area of career development as well as their specific responsibilities to their employees and the organisation (1998).The management should also be able to identify methods for improving the harmony between the individual and the organisation in relation to the development of their career. Lastly, the management should be able to apply career development in the setting of the organisation (1996).

There are organisational activities designed to enhance the career development. In the workplace, these activities include the following: the establishment of the job posting system, the development of career resource centres, the training of managers as career counsellors, the planning, and implementing of career development workshops, human resource planning, and forecasting, utilizing performance appraisals and developing career pathing programs (1998). According to  (1981), the organisation maintains several fundamental responsibilities regarding career development. The organisation must be able to agree that that career pathing is a vital part of the organisation. Meanwhile, in a study conducted by  (2003), professional growth provided support for applying the planned happenstance theory of career development to leadership development. With the presence of the aspect of continuous learning in this theory, learning in the organisation occurs.

Generally, career development is a knowledge-based procedure of managing life, learning and work over the years. It covers the provision of services from many different influences and delivery settings to assist people in gaining knowledge, acquiring skills, building attitudes and developing behaviours that help them to manage their career more effectively. Thus, in every given situation, career development varies at some extent due to the fact that each person’s environment and the many factors affecting life (e.g. family, society, school, social policy and the labour market) differ.

 

The Organisation – Brisbane School of Distance Education: the Need for Career Development

 

            Brisbane School of Distance Education aims for creating quality educational experiences for our community of diverse learners such as Distance students, Overseas students, Travelling students, Medical students, Approved students, Home Schooling students, and School based students.  

 

Preliminary Considerations

-       The school already has a centralized source of general information and standard set of policies when it comes to student curriculum and related activities.

-       It has guidance and counselling services that addresses the problems and concerns of students.

 

Significant Observations

-       The school involves a general pattern in teaching (e.g. fixed curriculum).

-       The school includes a diverse set of learners but only implements similar principles in the development of student’s personality, learning, and career.

With these considerations and observations, there is a need to create specific career development programs and services to every field of learning and expertise in Brisbane School of Distance Education. It can be done through the following methods:

1. Improved and Integrated Curriculum

In the epoch of various occurrences such as globalisation, industrialisation and technological advancement, the international marketplace including its particular areas and systems is overly affected by the processes intrinsic to these occurrences. Among the observable impacts of such emerging conditions in the professional world is competition. Competition among the various industries in every given economy is rapid and stiff. It is as if ‘survival of the fittest, extinction of the weakest’ trend. Today, as various industries are aiming for competitive advantage and sustainable development among its management and operations, there are numerous actions that are being implemented and are directed to the eventual success and growth of the company’s assets – the people. In competition, there is motivation in every business to improve and develop.

The principles of effective curriculum design that were embedded in the best examples of print-based open learning materials include a number of strategies designed to break down the physical and psychological distance between lecturers and their students. As  (1997) contends, education is still about creating a relationship between the teacher and their students, regardless of the medium used. These strategies include using friendly, informal language in the text and inserting information in the materials about the lecturer so that they emerge as a real person and not as some distant machine. In this way, the lecturer's enthusiasm for the content becomes evident to the students and, hopefully, begins to interest them in the material. For this reason, BSDE needs to broaden its satisfactory curriculum through improvement and integration of some other related disciplines. The constant upgrading and incorporation of various yet related fields and subjects that will eventually make its learning outcomes more competitive and practicable is the initial step in career development. A good curriculum is equivalent to competitive capability. BSDE have its REAL EDUCATIONAL OPTIONS in its curriculum areas. Initially, this is proven to be excellent since it promotes diversity among disciplines like Art, Business Education, English, Languages, Learning Teaching Technology, Senior Schooling, Math Graphics, Music, Science & HPE, and Social Science. As seen on the learning outcomes among the students, BSDE provides the necessary learning areas for learning and teaching. With this, there is a call for continuous improvement as demanded by the competition in the professional world.

2. More Specialized Training and Orientation

In line with the improved and integrated curriculum, the need for more specialized training and orientation is necessary. Driven by the competition in the professional arena, students of BSDE must be trained in the most acceptable and feasible ways. The training that is being rendered by the school must not be limited to micro setting; instead it covers a large scope of application. Bearing in mind, training must be relevant and should establish proficiency in the needed abilities for the future occupation of the student. Workshops/courses facilitated in BSDE must include, career planning, work search, communication, teambuilding, customer service, public speaking, study skills, workplace safety, leadership, recruitment and selection, self esteem and parenting. Overall, the training and orientation of BSDE students must be extensive yet effective in order to be aggressive in the professional arena.

3. “Theoretical Teaching but Practical Application” Policy

So too, exemplary open learning materials promote deep learning approaches among students. In order to move students beyond superficial approaches to learning, such as memorizing and reproducing information, effective teachers structure learning tasks that require students to think critically and creatively about information (Ramsden, 1992). The best examples of open learning materials did not merely provide students with lecture notes, a set of readings and essay topics, but gibbeted their journey through the content with activities and exercises. These were designed to enhance their ability to evaluate the information and arguments contained in the materials and to apply their newly acquired knowledge to new problems, tasks or situations. By engaging students with the content in this way, these open learning resources were able to inject interaction into the process of distance learning. In this way, they encouraged students to extend and ultimately transform their own knowledge and skills, thereby assisting them to reach some of the deeper levels of learning outlined by  (1993).

Similar to the above discussions, this policy is seen to be needed in the career development program of BSDE. This policy is common among social and human sciences. The concepts and theories that are learned must be applied instead of just being mere concepts and theories. In here, BSDE must promote more efforts in research and development (R&D) activities as well as on-field or on-the-job experiences. The immersion of the student in the field wherein he/she is plans to work after graduation is truly helpful. Furthermore, the application of concepts and theories learned is reinforced by actual exercises that will test the extent of learning and knowledge absorption. Programs offered in BSDE must target the areas where students and other graduates work with employment agencies, job re-entry programs, government departments, colleges and universities.  Positions from these fields must be guaranteed full-time, although there are increasing numbers of contract opportunities. For instance, career development graduates can apply their knowledge, skills and abilities in roles such as career counsellor, workshop facilitator, job developer, and human resources consultant. In BSDE, graduates must be properly employed not under- or totally unemployed.

4. Easy Access to Guidance and Counselling Services

The guidance and counselling services of every educational institution is fundamental to the growth and environment on the learner. BSDE is performing well in terms of guidance and counselling. As a matter of fact, Student Support Services of the school provides information and support to parents, students, staff and families through a range of Guidance and Counselling services. Guidance Officers at Brisbane School of Distance Education operate within the school context and where necessary network with community agencies and education personnel to deliver professional and personal support. There is no problem in the BSDE guidance and counselling, however ease of access to such services must be maintained. The scope of guidance and counselling services of BSDE include the following:

·                     Appropriateness of enrolment

·                     Class placement – learning/adjustment

·                     Subject selection

·                     Special education needs

·                     Planning of student short and long term goal

Moreover, Guidance Officers display in the execution of their duties and posses the following attributes.

·                     High level teaching ability

·                     Individual and group counselling skills

·                     Advanced skills and knowledge in psycho-educational assessment and intervention

·                     Advanced knowledge and skills in career education and counselling

Again, there is no problem in the guidance and counselling service of the school but there is a need to maintain ease of access, open communication, and information dissemination that such services are ongoing and offered for the benefits of the students.

5. Updated Sources of Information for Lessons and Better Accessibility

The innovations and emerging trends in the education sectors as well as the development of new knowledge-based information in every field of study prompts learning institutions to update their archives and libraries particularly with the educational materials being used in teaching and learning. BSDE has its library but the question is: does the school management maintain the accuracy and superiority of educational materials? With the aid of IT, BSDE can deal with the demands of current and innovative resources. The presence of the Internet is the mighty element. BSDE only need to update its website and make it more user-friendly and informative.

In business, the Internet allows consumers much greater access to information, opening up the market and undermining monopolies (2003). The Internet enables businesses to automate many operations and create a worldwide, 24-hour/day presence at low cost ( 2002). In terms of education and learning, it is said that ICT integration produces many positive implications. ICT enables access to Web sites that would allow students to learn about different cultures around the world (2003). Students are also seen more motivated and interested into a subject when daily lessons are incorporated with ICT. The contribution of ICT to improvement has been basically most significant with learning and communication. The internet is one good example of how that works. As quoted from (2003), “the internet provides the potential to deliver efficiently, and on the mass scale individualized, highly engaging learning and instructional content to almost any desktop and make information available to the teacher and student any time day and night” (). The internet is also said to provide authentic learning materials to students that are difficult to obtain in a traditional learning situation ( 2003). With the use of internet, many believe that learning has significantly become more flexible and content sources much more accessible ( 2003). Through the internet, distance learning is possible. The advantages of distance learning include the conservation of time, space, and effort for students (2002). Furthermore, it provides students more flexibility in balancing their academic lives with their personal lives (2002). Distance learning technologies are expanding at an extremely rapid rate. Too often, instructional designers and curriculum developers have become enamored of the latest technologies without dealing with the underlying issues of learner characteristics and needs, the influence of media upon the instructional process, equity of access to interactive delivery systems, and the roles of teacher, site facilitator, and student in the distant learning process. For BSDE, using the conveniences of the electronic media is the only way to update information sources and mode of transmission.

6. Enhanced Communication Lines and Linkages

Communication serves a number of functions for the organization ( 2001).  In production, communication plays its role in the direction, coordination, and control of tasks and activities.  It deals with the what, when, and how of the process. Consequently, communication serves as the pathway through which suggestions and insights that would generate change and new ideas in the system are discussed. Communication also keeps and preserves values and relationships necessary to keep the system of the organization collectively.

Effective communication is a necessity in the workplace (2002). Researchers and practitioners have long recognized communication skills are critical to job performance, career advancement, and organizational success (1989; 1986;  1987). Similarly,  (1994) suggested that communication serves four major functions within a group or organization: control, motivation, emotional expression, and information.  When employee, for instance, are required to first communicate any job-related grievance to their immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with company policies, communication is performing a control function. On the other hand, communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance. For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. Feelings of satisfaction and frustrations within the group or organization are being expressed through communication.  Thus, communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs. The benefits of teamwork are hard to measure. Additionally, the intuitive application of teamwork produces positive contributions to organizational performance. According to  (1998; 2001), the perceived advantages of teamwork to the organization are the following:

-           improvement in the financial outcomes;

-           reduction of employee turnover and absenteeism;

-           enhancement in the quality of care (in health care);

-           diminution of conflict; and

-           optimal patient outcomes.

 

Lastly, the final function of communication is related to its role in facilitating decision making.  It provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decision by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices. All in all and regardless of barriers in the communication process, communication still plays a great role in good group performance (2000) especially to the operational functions present in the various organizations that operates worldwide. Thus, there is a mandatory need to improve it.

In relation to other discussions above, BSDE must enhance its communication lines and linkages. With this, the need to expand the extent of development is not far at hand. The structure of distance learning as given by BSDE gives adults the greatest possible control over the time, place and pace of education; however, it is not without problems. Loss of student due to lack of face-to-face contact with teachers and peers, potentially prohibitive startup costs, and lack of faculty support are all barriers to successful learning. Thus, there is a need to improved communication linkages.

7. Increase of Student Services

On this aspect, the increase of student services that are directed to the welfare and development of their future career is dependent on the strategic directions that BSDE upholds.

·         Student centred educational programs which utilise the 5 principles of learning and teaching for use in the distance mode.

·         Maximised involvement of all members of the school community.

·         Strong advocacy for a quality and appropriate curriculum that is responsive to a diverse student community in an ever changing society.

·         Effective communication.

·         Effective leadership and management that actively promotes school identity, its unique needs, and its place within Education Queensland.

·         A strong commitment to induction training and development of all staff, home tutors, and supervisors.

·         Optimised use of technology to facilitate program delivery.

 

Career Development by Constant Improvement and Growth through Planning, Training and Learning

 

A careful planning and scrutiny will eventually help the individual focused on the chosen area of service. Thus, career management through constant improvement and growth through planning, training and learning is important. In an interview,  (2004) of Fortify Services, he believed that: “full-on career management requires professionalism, total commitment and large reserves of enthusiasm and energy every step of the way”. He added that career management is not an innate talent but a process to be learned. It is not a ‘frivolous luxury’ but a ‘necessity’ in the workforce. Career management is, at its most fundamental level, all about survival in these increasingly uncertain times. It is about carefully building and nurturing people’s skills and reputation (2004).

In career development, chance is a big opportunity. A chance to develop the manager’s skills and capabilities determines continuous improvement. There are five attitudes that are essential to recognizing, creating, and using chance as an opportunity (2000):

1.    curiosity - which will prompt you to explore new learning opportunities;

 

2.    persistence - which means you exert extra effort despite setbacks;

 

3.    flexibility - which enables you to change attitudes and circumstances;

 

4.    optimism - which will allow you to view new opportunities as possible and attainable; and

 

5.    the willingness to take risks, which will enable you to act in the face of uncertainty.

 

These five attitudes are applicable to the overall programme of career development services to be offered among BSDE students. Because training and learning are imperative requirements, any form of activity and study can help a student to meet his or her goals. Thus, it can be said that personal and professional learning is significantly related to organisational and attitudinal outcomes. Career development improves the efficiency of the education and training system of BSDE students while supporting the interface with and the requirements of the Australian labour market. Career development plays an important part in raising the aspirations of BSDE students and supporting them to access and manage opportunities that might otherwise be denied to them.

Since BSDE students are yet to established careers in the future, career development services and programmes to be offered for them will help them to make immediate and specific career and learning choices and also lay the foundations for life-long learning and personality development. Career development competencies incorporated into the programme along with career awareness and experiential career exploration enables them to have long-term and productive affiliation to their respective companies.

 

Career Development and Work-Life Balance

Then again, students must be trained to keep balance in their work and life as a whole. With the teachings of BSDE particularly in career development and to the advantages of the career development programs, a student is expected to deal with the daily pressures and demands of the work effectively and satisfactorily. The extent of work-life balance programs depends on the personal and professional limitations. BSDE must train its students to identify priorities and this could be done through the presence of activities and exercises that will develop the necessary skill.

Career Development, Task Management and Human Resource Management

Task management is defined as the efficient and effective distribution and implementation of the policies and tasks necessary to facilitate a firm's smooth operations in dealing with its customers, employees, and management. It focuses on the careful management of the processes involved in the production and distribution of products and services (1991). The structure of tasks among the employees strengthens the organizational performance ( 1993). With this fact, career development is necessary in designing task structure that goes hand in hand with the standards of HRM. Also, the experiences of BSDE students can determine their applicability and appropriateness to the job at hand.

Among BSDE students, career development in terms of task management identifies the scope, structure, and other factors affecting the position. By constant planning, training and learning, students will emerge as totally competitive individuals that will serve the benefit of sustained competitive edge of the company in which they will belong – against its competitors. Task management is not only limited on the individual professional level but also to the organizational spectrum. Effective task management is related to existing HR functions and practices inherent in the upper management. In connection to the role of human resource management,  (1994) described a technique to help HR specialists, line managers and interested employees identify previously uncharted career paths for internal transfers using Job Trees. Also, they combined some of the traditional skill identifications with organisational characteristics, work flow patterns, and existing internal and external relationships representing how the organization actually operates. The need for career development in task management is directly associated with the roles and responsibilities of the Target managers in forthcoming organisational operations and transactions. With this, it is not only evident that learning is taking place but also experiential professional development is up.

 

Implications, Benefits and Challenges

The issues of career mobility and employment relationship cannot be adequately addressed without systematic incorporation of organisations. Given the longstanding theoretical and practical interests in markets and economic development (1989;1995; 1992), important questions related to the impact of career development on organisational practices (i.e. hiring, promotion, and compensation) have yet to receive their share of attention. However, career development effects on every organizational environment are undeniably useful.

Aside from the aforementioned benefits and implications of the career development program for BDSE, generally, one persuasive reason on why organizations offer career development is that the process serves as a means to develop the best employees for the job to sustain corporate competitive advantage. Developing the best person to occupy a position in a company means higher chances of efficiency. Retaining company’s best work assets is sustaining the growing competitive edge of the organisation. Hence, by doing such career development programs, productivity and progression is ensured. Another reason why organizations engage in career management is productivity. The quality of the workforce predefines the possible outputs of the organisation. A weak workforce means poor labour while a strong workforce is more. Productivity is the measurement of organizational growth. By utilizing career management systems, the productivity of the organisation is achievable.  (1994) stated that productivity may come from a dedicated and well-motivated workforce. Through motivation, it can be assumed as the reason or the force behind why a person does well in work. Sometimes, it is also a means to make the person perform better and more efficient.

Aside from organizational results, career development may also help individuals to balance their work and family life, and link their personal career goals to the emerging needs of their employer, industry, or community (1995; 1997). This is evident when the student is already working. By means of balancing work and life of employees, the contributions in the progression of the organisation is focused and defined. Since market-dependent firms like multinational and transnational companies have more at stake in maintaining a high level of employee competence, these BSDE and its students should be more likely than others to adapt effective career management processes in favour of human capital. In order for an organisation to take advantage on the effects of career management, career managers and administration should equip people to benchmark their skills, anticipate upcoming skill demands, and commit to continuous learning (1997; 1995; 1997). These are the biggest challenges affecting career development. During these rapid and competitive changing times, organizations need to help each other to facilitate the achievement of goals and objectives. Organizations must identify specific skills and competencies that will maximize the company’s growth. Balance is not so much a career management variable as it is a life management variable that permits one to achieve career success while remaining satisfied. This explanation would support (1999) call for workers of the future to take time to recharge. However, the idea that every employee possesses a succinct picture of the goals and objectives s/he wants to achieve is finite.

The continuing public discussion on the quality of education has nearly overlooked adult readers and learners (2002; 2003). With the advent of the Information Age comes the ever increasing passion of humans for learning. More and more adults from various economic and cultural orientations, already in the workplace, and with families are seeking to educate themselves to keep up their careers (1999). Nowadays, there exists a wide array of options available for learners to do this. They higher education, or their company’s Internet. The choice is entirely in the hands of learners’ themselves. The ways that they seek to educate and re-educate themselves to stay abreast with current trends in their jobs is Distance Learning.

 

 

 

CONCLUSION

            Education as the proponent of social change is undeniably evident among the aforementioned theory. With the concept of globalization that is extremely influential to the present times, social changes brought about by distance learning and education as a whole is observable. The traditional applications and approaches towards things are now modernized and create innovative results that may affect the former in a positive or negative way.

The need for career development services is founded in evidence that the development of an individual’s career provides a foundation for that person’s feeling of self-worth and fulfilment. In relation to this case, career development among BSDE student is not far to realized provided that the above discussion are considered, evaluated, and applied.

Career development programs for Brisbane School of Distance Education are argued to be essential yet it needs constant improvement and intensification through the following considerations:  

·                     improved and integrated curriculum

·                     more specialized training and orientation

·                     “theoretical teaching but practical application” policy

·                     easy access to guidance and counselling services

·                     updated sources of information for lessons and accessibility

·                     enhanced communication lines and linkages

·                     increase of student services

Because constant development and growth through planning, training and learning is crucial; BSDE teaches students how to maintain balance between work and life; and it defines the bulk of responsibility falling under a strict implementation of task management and HRM. The implications and benefits of career development among BSDE students and the whole school management and personnel as well are: the process serves as a means to develop and retain the best people for the job to sustain competitive advantage, organisational and employee productivity, and balance of work and family life and link to their personal career goals to the emerging needs of their employer, industry, or community. The bottom line is – the effectiveness of the career development process in making career choices and decisions, managing the organizational and boundless careers, and taking control of one’s personal development is dependent to the predetermined objectives of an individual and the organisation he/she wanted to penetrate.

 

WORD COUNT: 5, 468 including in-text citation and subsections

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Moral development and Education

 

The influence of several educational programs from the school curriculum on the moral development of children with regards to school activities since, the curriculum is an effective tool for encouraging moral development in children education. However, few programs have been implemented to investigate moral development changes in school activity settings. Teachers have included the development of sportspersonship as one of the major values of participation of every ages and abilities ( 1986) about the choice of effective teaching strategies that explicitly focus on the moral development of children (1986). A notable contribution to the development of teaching strategies that focus on moral development – a teacher resource manual developed by the Commission as the activities are designed to focus on the development of attitudes and behaviors that exemplify the ideals as identified by the teacher.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The education was premised on principles from both social learning (1977) and structural-developmental theories (1977; 1985;  1976). These theories have been shown to be quite suitable for examining moral development in the physical domain ( 1990). While social learning theorists define moral development as the extent to which individuals' behaviors conform to social convention and norms, structural-developmental theorists define moral development as an individual's tendency to behave in accordance with one's most mature moral reasoning patterns ( 1990). The process by which individuals develop morally, according to social learning theorists, are modeling and reinforcement, whereas structural developmentalists implicate experiencing dilemmas or conflicts, discussing the dilemmas with all involved individuals, and resolving conflicts through mutual agreement (1985).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Understanding and developing moral standards is viewed as an essential function if humans are to interact effectively in a decent and ethical manner. Educators need to consider theorist’s proposals to the development of morality and implement those views into their teachings. This is important because anything that is taught will reflect on how a person behaves and what they believe within their society (2003). Theorists such as  (1932),  (1969),  (1977),  (1961) and  (1982) have varying views on what influences the development of moral behavior. (2003 ) mentions that such theorists studies can be viewed under two main categories: The socialization approach, supported by theorists such as  and  and the cognitive-developmental approach, supported by theorists such as  and Kohlberg. Although different, each recognizes the importance of the other. Both approaches have proved relevant to methods of learning and teaching through examinations such as ’s where he watched young children play games. When making rules, he concluded fairness was decided on by a mutual respect and cooperation. From which he concluded in education, schools should stress mutual problem-solving and decision making which would encourage students to decide on common rules based on fairness in contradiction to .

 

 

 

The present study suggest that children's judgment of what to do in a moral dilemma, their identification of the most important reason to consider in this judgment, their intentions to act in a particular way, and their actual behavior are interwoven to produce a more holistic outlook on moral development than was previously examined within the confines of one empirical study. (1984) model of moral action should continue to be embraced as a theoretical grounding in future studies of moral development in the physical domain. Nevertheless, it is recommended that future studies consider using external raters who are blind to the experimental conditions and unfamiliar to students to reduce the possibility of teacher expectancy effects. There may be a costs/benefits trade-off to this procedure, however, in that external raters who are unfamiliar with the students and who observe only snapshots of children's behaviors may, in fact, be less accurate and reliable with ratings than the full-time teachers who have had ample opportunities to observe children's behavioral tendencies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Human nature has innate potentials and inclinations to develop towards moral maturity, granted education and proper choice. The state of human flourishing that is found in the virtuous measures the intermediate stages. Although various thinkers and cultures depict human flourishing differently, naturalist ethics almost always posits some general features of individual and social maturity that normatively guide appropriate human growth. American psychological research on moral development has dominated by  and his disciples, in particular his former colleague who emerged as his foremost critic,  as  posited a highly rational model of moral reflection and derived a sequence of six stages of moral development from the stages of cognitive development outlined by  whose work had recently been discovered by American psychologists. If children progressively learned to incorporate the structures of causality, space, time, and the like into their thinking,  reasoned, they should also progressively move to understand and employ the analogous universal moral structures. They would move from pre-conventional morality based on fear or shame to more conventional motives based on self-interest and peer respect. The higher stages of morality would be post-conventional since the mature person comes to acknowledge moral obligations as autonomous claims.

 

 

 

Ordinary moral development gradually extends concern for one's closest connections to concern for strangers, including those affected by social arrangements. Justice and fairness might be considered components of this expanded caring rather than its alternatives. Moral development has not yet become a major concern for virtue ethics, even though the topic was central to the moral philosophy of Aristotle, the traditional source of much virtue ethics.(1984, 1994) traditional cognitive-structuralist approach has contributed much to an understanding of the development of moral judgment. However, his conceptual emphasis on the form of moral judgment and the role of cognitive maturity in the development of moral judgment has led researchers to neglect the relationship between family socialization processes and the content of moral thought. In the study, there is an attempt to redress this imbalance by adopting conceptual and empirical contributions from social learning theory, cognitive developmental psychology, and family-systems research.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

There are several arguments for examining the content of moral thought. First, the content of moral thought is quite different from the form of moral thought: Content refers to what one reasons about, whereas form refers to how one reasons (1983). Second, (1994) approach contains several logical inconsistencies that a content approach avoids ( 1996). Third, (1994) emphasis on form, or cognitive maturity, has led to the empirical neglect of family processes involved in the learning of moral judgments (1996). Therefore, by examining (1994) stages from the viewpoint of content, one may investigate logically whether any differences in the moral thought of individuals with similar levels of cognitive maturity may stem from different types of family-socialization processes. In contrast, the argument in the present study is that moral development is not simply age dependent; rather, moral development is family-system dependent, so that differences in ascribed sources of moral authority would be expected within an age group of adolescents of the same cognitive maturity (  1992).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The present Australian study contains findings that strongly support the argument that family cohesion, adaptability, and communication are strongly related to the content of adolescent moral thought; the present findings, thus, provide a needed counterbalance to (1984) conceptual and empirical bias against the role of the family in the development of moral judgment. For improved understanding, however, future researchers should explore whether the significant relationship between family socialization processes and the content of moral thought can be generalized to adolescent samples of different cultures. Generally, the present findings have important practical implications namely, that if researchers can identify particular family socialization processes that are related to different sources of moral authority to which adolescents ascribe, then therapists, educators and parents may benefit from such knowledge and gain a better understanding of children’s needs and concerns. Most developmental stage theories use the notion of hierarchical complexity. In the ian model ( 1977) each successive hierarchical integration produces novel understandings by using the operations of the previous order as conceptual elements in its new constructions (1984;1998).

 

 

 

moral judgment instrument is infrequently used today. Not only did the instrument apparently fail to support postulates of stage theory, such as structured wholeness and no regressions to earlier stages (1998), but it has been severely criticized for alleged cultural and gender biases (1977; 1994;  1990). As  (1976) and  (1977) have argued that instrument is inappropriate for assessing the moral judgment of children and that it results in underestimates of children's moral competence. Moreover,  (1989) showed that Moral Stages 1 and 2 fail to account for a wide range of moral concepts expressed by young children and that it generally underestimated their ability to take the perspective of others (1988). A central task of moral development theory is to explain the relation between moral judgment and moral behavior. For both  and  judgment is essential to the determination of actions as moral (1983;  1984;  1932, 1976). Thus, it is not unreasonable to assume that moral judgment has a positive association with moral behavior (1983).

 

 

 

 

 

 

In regard to moral judgment, it is reasonable to assume that children who are better able to think about their moral reasoning processes are more likely to be aware of inconsistencies in this reasoning and are also more likely to attempt to resolve those inconsistencies. A resolution of those inconsistencies is likely to yield more differentiated, and thus more advanced, moral judgment. Likewise, moral metacognition is also likely to affect behavior in that children who are better able to reason about their actions are more likely to recognize moral aspects of their behavior and thus employ moral reasoning in formulating plans for behavior. Finally, moral metacognition may serve as a correlate between moral action and moral reasoning and as a prerequisite to using moral judgment to direct one's actions. For example, children's awareness of characteristics such as occupation, socialization, history, age, and economic circumstances will influence how they reason about moral issues ( 1979). Children's understanding of the purposes, scope, and requirements of moral action must be taken into consideration before their behavior can be accurately assessed. A child who has a better understanding of the purposes, scope, and requirements of the situation that demands action is more likely to display higher degrees of moral behavior than a child who fails to fully comprehend the nature of the task (1982).

 

 

 

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can teachers help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development?

           

            Psychosocial development is characterized by an individual’s increasing awareness of self. It is a transition from the reflexive and reactive state to that of an organized and active state. This development is not independent but interacts with biological and cognitive development (1997). At any given time, the learner will have to cope with meeting the challenges that these development presents, making every phase of the learner’s development meaningful. Psychosocial development of a child needs the guidance of other people like the parents or the teachers. When a child goes to school to learn, his or her learning and how the teacher handles it can affect the overall psychosocial development of the child.

            Three principal areas of concern in creating a quality early childhood educational environment are identified: 1) the environment's effect on the social development of children, 2) the provision of the physical setting, and 3) the provision of a psychological environment. Key components are: interaction between teacher and children, establishment of a caring atmosphere among peers, and teacher-to-teacher interaction. As important as the preschool environment is to children's social development, a family's socioeconomic status, ways of interacting, and methods of education also are significant influences (2002).

            Teachers are crucial since in formal schooling they are the ones who provide instruction to their students. Instruction is a crucial factor in the teaching-learning process. For that matter, the teacher assumes the responsibility of bringing out the best in the individual transformation in the different phases of a student’s development. By development, this means the whole development of the child, including his physical, mental, psychosocial, and other aspects of a child’s development.

The success of such efforts however, is determined not only by the teacher’s mastery of the subject matter and efficient use of instructional materials but also through understanding of the aspects of human growth and development. In Singapore, this is important as the country has placed great emphasis on education. Singapore has made the schooling of its children the No. 1 national priority, recognizing that it's critical to the country's success (2003).

            The competence of a teacher is manifested in his or her ability to identify the needs of the child, recognize the child’s potentials, harness them, and adjust instruction in accordance with the child’s abilities. It is therefore imperative that the teacher recognizes the uniqueness of an individual even as he or she acquires knowledge of learning. This is very important if learning is to be successful and the aim of education is to be met.

            The development of a child undergoes a complicated process; it is a pattern of growth that is unique for every individual. For this reason, a teacher should have a thorough understanding of the principles of development which is to be considered in order to promote a successful transformation of the learner not only within the four walls of the classroom but in the whole society as well.

            Normally, in a child’s process of growth, he or she goes through sequences that include physical, mental, motor and even socio-emotional growth (1996). Along with all these, the teacher should try to focus attention to the patterns of behavior that make for individual differences which are evident even in the child’s early foundation.

            For this reason, it is said that a successful future hinges on how well an individual is able to adjust to life and how powerful he or she is in getting rid of the constraints or hazards that go with development. These hazards may stem from his physical inadequacies, psychological problems and even environmental influences.

            Knowledge of the principles of human growth and development is important in order for teachers to help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development. It will help the teachers know what to expect and when to expect it. Otherwise, there would be a tendency to expect too much or too little of the child at a given time, which is bad. It also gives the teacher information as to when to stimulate and not to stimulate the child. It gives a basis for planning the environmental encouragement that must be offered and the correct time for this encouragement.

            Understanding and knowledge of the children who are the learners is an essential of effective teaching (1996). This simply means, of course, the understanding of the basic principles of human growth and development. If a teacher expects to guide learning effectively, he must know how much children are capable of understanding at various levels of maturity. The teacher must also know the interests and previous experiences of the learners which he or she can utilize in motivating them.

            By understanding the basic principles of human growth and development, the teacher will be able to know the adjustments that children have to make at various stages of development and the physical, emotional, and social problems they face in growing up. A teacher must therefore develop the special skills needed in gathering information about children.

            The teacher must know various psychological theories that apply to the child’s learning. Basic to the teacher’s success as a facilitator of learning is his or her understanding of certain psychological principles underlying the relationship between teaching approaches and the learner’s performance.

            In the learning principle wherein the learner must be psychologically and physiologically ready, this is in line with Thorndike’s law of readiness and law of effect. Edward L. Thorndike is a well-known American psychologist and educator. The law of readiness states that when a person is prepared to respond or act, giving the response is satisfying and being prevented from doing so is annoying (1912). This law is related to the law of effect and accounts for a child’s motivational aspect of learning.

            This law implies that it is important for a teacher to either wait for a child’s readiness or accept the present level of readiness of the learner and to be satisfied with a slower learning rate in presenting a new learning experience.

            Let us take for example a 7-year old Singaporean child who is sent to have formal lessons at school. Normally, a child with a mental age of 7 will already have the maturity level to enable him to cope with formal lessons at school. Suppose this child does not have the requisite maturation, the experience of trying to learn at school will be frustrating and annoying for him. Herein, the teacher must not force the child beyond his level if the teacher wants the child to successfully overcome the challenges presented by his psychosocial development. The teacher must let the learner learn at his or her own pace.

            The law of effect states that learning is strengthened when it results in satisfaction but is weakened if it leads to annoyance ( 1912). In relation to the given example above, the Singaporean child will feel annoyed if he is being forced to learn, and the tendency would be for the child to avoid the experience which only annoyed him or her.

            The teacher must guide the learner all throughout the learning process, including guiding the learner in practicing or repeating what he or she has learned in order to remember them. This is in accordance with Thorndike’s law of exercise. The constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus and disuse of a response weakens it (1912). The teacher can utilize educational practices such as drill, review, and examination to exemplify this principle. However, there must be understanding on the part of the learner before they are made to memorize or repeat them.

            The social development of children can be viewed from various theoretical perspectives; the perspective underlying this article is that of Erik Erickson. Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development states that there are several stages in psychosocial development wherein a crisis occurs that must be resolved with a satisfactory balancing of opposites if there is to be a healthy progress into the next stage. How successfully these crises are resolved at each stage determines how healthy the development will be (2003). Out of the eight stages, a school age child will be in at least two or three stages while he or she is attending school and under the guide of a teacher who could help him or her get through the crisis presented in every stage.

            The first is the stage of initiative and guilt which is a conflict between children’s urge to form and carry out goals and their moral judgments of what they want to do. This is from age 3 to 6 years. The teacher in this stage has to guide the children to resolve the crisis. If it is resolved well, children acquire the virtue of purpose. If it is not resolved well, children may become guilt-ridden and repressed ( 2004).

Teachers in the pre-school level, together with parents and other members of the immediate family, should allow the children to engage in considerable free experiment to encourage the development of autonomy but at the same time provide some guidance to reduce the possibility of the establishment of doubt. More specifically, teachers should subtly direct a child who is attempting something beyond his capabilities. Teachers in the kindergarten level should allow children considerable self-initiated activities and intervene only when the child steps on the rights of others.

The second is the stage of industry and inferiority from 6 to 12 years of age. This is a time of relative emotional calm, when children can attend to their schooling and learn the skills that culture requires. The characteristic crisis of this period is that of industry versus inferiority, and the issue to be resolved is the child’s capacity for productive work. The virtue that develops with a successful resolution of the crisis is competence, a view of the self as able to master and complete tasks ( 2006). Children develop a general sense of personal mastery of a great number of activities and games, including that of learning.

The teacher has the responsibility of encouraging the child in these activities that he or she is interested. If children are not encouraged to actively engage in these activities, their sense of mastery will give way to personal inferiority. During this time, the teacher must help the child master his or her surroundings or else the child will suffer inferiority. Teachers in the elementary level should make the classroom situation a meaningful to the pupils as possible so as to facilitate personal industry and mastery. The learners should be encouraged to compete with themselves instead of with others.

            In the next stage, from age 12 to 18 years, the chief task of the adolescence is to resolve the conflict of identity versus role confusion. The desirable outcome is a sense of oneself as a unique human being with a meaningful role to play in the society ( 2006).

The teacher has the role of helping the adolescent search for his or her identity. Educators also need to understand that adolescence is a time immensely complicated by problems. Teachers should help the students to anticipate the future and weigh possibilities in career choice.

            The kind of teaching strategy that should be used by the teacher in order to help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development should be one that will require the active participation of the learners. The teacher should take care to invite children who are not active in participation.

            Sometimes, in a lesson, it is important that the teacher will follow it with a drill. The drill lesson is the automatization of certain facts, habits, or skills. Drills aim to fix associations for permanency or to perfect a skill (1987). In line with Erickson’s stage of industry and inferiority, the drill can help the child with mastery of what he or she is learning.

            Mere repetition will of course not bring mastery. And in this the teacher must be keen on. The teacher must see to it that the learners do it with attention, comprehension, and interest. Sometimes, it cannot be stopped that drill work can be perceived by the learners as boring and presents apathy and listlessness in the children. The teacher must therefore combine this with games or songs which would arouse the interest of children, even if done repeatedly.

            Another teaching strategy that would help the children solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development would be group work where the children can interact with one another. This could be done through the laboratory method wherein the learning process deals with firsthand experiences regarding materials or facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. This could be a reflection of John Dewey’s theory on learning by doing (2000). The children learn more by participating first hand in the learning experience. This also provides a direct preparation for life for the learners.

            In their philosophies of education, both Vygotsky and Dewey stress that learning is a social process. Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" emphasizes his belief that learning is socially mediated activity. It is the zone in which students can solve problems collaboratively and learn from one another. In other words, students may be able to complete some tasks independently; however, in order for them to increase their "level of potential development," students need to work with others (2000).

            If a child uses these cognitive processes with the help of others such as teachers, parents, and other students, they will then become skills and abilities that can be independently practiced by the learner. As Vygotsky put it, “what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow.”

            According to a study, a multidisciplinary approach would seem to have the best chance of success. Groups of professionals with a vested interest and responsibility to optimize the psychosocial development of children need to join forces. Pediatricians, educators, social workers, psychologists, and others should work to collectively make the public aware of the importance of social/emotional learning programs. Pressure needs to then be exerted on the branches of government to find the funding, so these programs can be expanded and made more readily available (2006).

            It is not enough, however, for a teacher to just know the characteristics of children. Equally important is that the teacher must like children. One can hardly be expected to stimulate children’s growth if the teacher does not find any satisfaction in working with them. Only a teacher who has genuine and sincere love and interest for teaching children and the children themselves can successfully help children solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development and ultimately create in children the love for learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Developing a Considered Standpoint on Equity and Education

CULTURAL CAPITAL AND CULTURAL LITERACY

 

Introduction

            One of the most important things that must be considered by every organization may it be public or corporate organizations is to establish a good relationship among its members.  This can be done by having good communication and interactions of each staffs and members of the organization.  This practice of smooth interaction is usually seen in design practices.  According to  (2004):

“Design practices pay off most when they are incorporated across conception, development, use, and habituation of a product, service or environment – and are not just used to correct the usability and identity of a product conceived by other means. Usability engineers, database designers, visual artists, business managers, architects, psychologists, ethnographers and device developers all shape interaction design. In doing so, they draw on bodies of knowledge that vary in how codified they are and how understandable they are to others.”

For  (2004), if this concept of interdisciplinary approaches will be adapted in an organisation, there is a greater possibility that the public relations and even corporate organization will be able to achieve its organisational goal. By definition, an organization may it be public or corporate is a system of at least two people with interdependence, input, throughput, and output ( 2001).   It is a system of purposeful, interpersonal activity designed to coordinate tasks.  Working in this definition, it is essential that every member of the organization communicates effectively with one another.  Organization is something people create through interactions and their activity. 

Interactions within a group or inter-professional team go beyond the concepts of effective speaking or listening, or what is commonly considered as linear communication. It is an interactive model which deals with feedback and reciprocal exchanges. According to surveys focusing on areas of improvement among corporations, interdisciplinary approaches are usually ranked first as an important element within the organization (1993). Specifically, interactions are recognized as an important aspect of an organization as it keeps employees well-informed and open to communication channels. Moreover, organizational interdisciplinary approaches enable the employees to comply with organizational standards, leading to efficiency and accuracy.

Primarily, the main